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JOHN MILTON: THE AUTHOR AND HIS TIMES

Americans tend to forget that they weren't the first to have a
revolution.  The English had theirs more than 130 years before the
Thirteen Colonies rebelled.  The English revolution consisted of a
bloody Civil War from 1642 to 1649, the beheading of King Charles I
in January 1649, and ten years of Puritan republican rule; it ended
finally with the restoration of the monarchy under King Charles II in
1660.

These events aren't merely the background to John Milton's life:
they were his life.  We usually think of the war as a conflict
between the Cavaliers and the Roundheads.  John Milton was a
Roundhead.  The Cavaliers, or Royalists, supported the king and
tended toward Catholicism.  They believed in an aristocracy that had
the right to special privileges, both in politics and in religion.
The Roundheads, or Puritans, believed in a wider distribution of
political and economic power and the right of every man to enjoy
direct access to God.

Milton was so strongly committed to the Puritan cause that he
accepted a government position under Oliver Cromwell, who ruled as
Lord Protector from 1649 to 1658.  Milton was a radical Christian
individualist who objected strongly and vocally to all kinds of
organized religions which, he believed, put barriers between man and
God.

Milton was therefore a rebel because he identified himself with a
revolutionary cause.  Paradise Lost, his masterpiece, is about
rebellion and its consequences.

One way of looking at the poem is to see it as Milton's working out
of his own position.  Although many readers have thought that Milton
is really Satan, he probably saw himself as Abdiel, the angel who
refuses to go along with Satan.  Milton was arrogant in his belief
that he understood the truth and had a duty to explain it for
everyone's good.

The revolution he lived through changed every aspect of English life.
When he was born in 1608, Shakespeare was still alive and Queen
Elizabeth was only five years dead.  Her influence was still felt.
She had been an absolute monarch who regarded Parliament as a
necessary evil in order to get money for her projects.  When Milton
died in 1674, Charles II reigned as constitutional monarch without
any real power except that granted to him by Parliament.

Milton's circumstances changed drastically during his life.  His
family was reasonably well-to-do.  They lived in London, which was
Milton's home for most of his life.  His father was a scrivener, a
sort of combined notary and banker, who was wealthy enough to afford
private tutors for his son, then schooling at St.  Paul's and
Christ's College, Cambridge University.  Perhaps just as important
for Milton's development was the fact that his father was a musician
and composer.  One of the most attractive features of Milton's poetry
is its marvelous musical qualities.

Since Milton had a small private income, he did not seek a profession
when he left Cambridge, but stayed at home writing poetry and
increasing his already amazing stock of knowledge.  Some people have
said that Milton was one of the most learned men England has ever
known.  He wrote poetry in Latin, Greek, and Italian, and read almost
all the literature surviving from the Greek and Roman periods.  He
even read the Bible in Hebrew.

Just before the religious and political quarrels in England came to a
head, Milton went abroad for fifteen months, meeting and talking with
learned and famous men all over Europe.  He met Galileo and looked
through his telescope, a fact Milton mentions more than once in
Paradise Lost.

When he returned, he put his learning and considerable rhetorical
force at the service of the Puritan cause.  He wrote a series of
scorching political and religious pamphlets:  he condemned bishops,
not only the Catholic ones but those of the Protestant Church of
England; defended the liberty of the press against censorship; even
advocated divorce.  Many of the controversies in which he engaged
with heat and passion we find difficult to sympathize with now, but
Milton championed them with vigor and made himself not only well
known but also well hated.

The Civil War deeply affected his personal relations.  His brother
Christopher adhered to the Royalist side.  Milton married into a
Royalist family in 1642.  He was swept off his feet by a fun-loving
seventeen-year-old, Mary Powell, whose family was originally the
source of Milton's private income (they had bought property from
Milton's father).  The Powells kept Mary away from Milton, in Oxford
where King Charles I made his headquarters, and did not let her
travel to London to live with her husband until 1645.

By that time Milton had been extremely vocal publicly on the subject
of divorce (he even advocated polygamy at one time) and had had an
affair with a Miss Davies.  His was a lively household, for he looked
after and educated his dead sister's three sons.  (One of them became
Milton's biographer and the source of most of what we know about
Milton's life.) He took his duties as schoolmaster very seriously;
the boys were beaten if they did not learn their Latin and Greek
grammar.  The civil disturbances flowed in and out of the house as
Milton's pamphlets provoked angry opposition and his supporters cried
for more.

Only six weeks after King Charles I's head rolled from his body
(Milton's friend Marvell wrote a famous ode on the occasion), Milton
became Latin secretary to Oliver Cromwell.  It was his duty to
compose all the government's diplomatic correspondence in Latin, a
job probably concerned as much with public relations as with accurate
translation.

By this time Milton was blind, probably as a result of a cyst or
tumor of the pituitary gland.  For the rest of his life he depended
on others to read to him and to write at his dictation.  Because he
was not a patient man--he had the arrogance of a person conscious of
his talents--reading and writing for him was not easy.  His daughters
objected to the tyranny he showed in demanding their time and then
complaining when they read incorrectly.

Mary died in 1652, leaving a blind man with three young daughters,
the eldest mentally retarded.  Milton married again in 1657, but his
second wife, whom he called in a famous sonnet his "espoused saint,"
lived only fifteen months and died after giving birth to a daughter,
who also died.  Milton married a third time, to a woman who looked
after him for the rest of his life and managed to bring order to a
household full of quarreling daughters, relatives, and visitors to
the famous writer.

In 1658, Oliver Cromwell had died, leaving England in the incompetent
hands of his son, Richard.  The passions that had caused the Civil
War had cooled, and the king's son was asked to return, but on the
conditions which brought about the English constitutional monarchy.

The coming of Charles II meant the end of Milton's government job.
For a time he was in danger of his life and had to be hidden by
friends--one of his pamphlets had argued strongly in defense of
Charles I's beheading.  Milton retired from public life and devoted
himself to the composition of Paradise Lost.  By the time he had
finished dictating it to whoever got up early in the morning, two
other events had disturbed Milton's never very tranquil life.  In
1665 he was forced by the Great Plague to leave London and live in a
Buckinghamshire village.  A year later, in the Great Fire in 1666,
Milton lost the last piece of property he owned.  He lived the last
few years of his life in considerable poverty, quite unlike the
comfort of his first pampered years in his father's house.

Paradise Lost (1667) is the culmination of his life's work.  His
early poems, the exquisite "L'Allegro," "Il Penseroso," "Lycidas,"
the masque Comus, and the sonnets would all secure him a place among
the finest English poets.  But it is Paradise Lost which makes it
impossible for you to ignore Milton.  He wrote Paradise Regained
afterward, but it has nothing like the stature of Paradise Lost.  (It
is not, as you might think, about Christ's sacrifice, but about his
three-day temptation in the desert by Satan.) Milton's final work,
Samson Agonistes, is a Greek drama as impressive as Paradise Lost in
everything except size.

Milton died in 1674, just after the second edition of Paradise Lost
appeared.  The poem was for that time a modest best seller.  It sold
1,300 copies in the first eighteen months and earned Milton a total
of ten pounds.  By the end of the seventeenth century, the book had
gone through six editions, including one published in 1678 with large
engraved illustrations.  It has never lost its status as a classic,
and it has never stopped being a source of controversy.  People love
or hate Paradise Lost, for as many reasons as it has readers.  The
poem has retained its interest because it deals with subjects that
will always concern us--good, evil, freedom, responsibility.  And
because, like any great work of literature, it's exciting to read.

PARADISE LOST:  THE PLOT

Paradise Lost follows the epic tradition in not telling the story
chronologically, with one event following another in the sequence in
which they occurred.  Instead it begins at midpoint and tells the
rest in flashbacks (and flash-forwards).  Before we consider the plot
as it actually unfolds in Paradise Lost, it is helpful to have in
mind an outline of the story in chronological order.

PARADISE LOST: THE CHRONOLOGICAL SEQUENCE OF EVENTS

God has three aspects, the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost or
Holy Spirit.  As creator, God the Father sets everything going, like
a clock, so that he knows what is to happen but does not interfere
with the running of it.  In Heaven he is surrounded by angels
("angel" comes from a Greek word meaning "messenger").  When he
decides to announce the equal status with himself of his Son,
one-third of the angels rebel under the leadership of Lucifer, who
becomes Satan, the Prince of Hell.  A terrible three-day War in
Heaven ends in the defeat of Satan by the Son, who drives all the
rebel angels down to Hell, which God has created for them out of
primal Chaos.

To replace the missing angels, God through his Son creates the World,
and he puts Adam and Eve in the Garden of Paradise.  Like the angels,
they have free will.  They live in pleasure, with frequent visits
from the angels, but they must not touch two trees in the garden, the
Tree of Knowledge and the Tree of Life.

Satan wants revenge on God for his defeat, so he tempts Eve to eat
fruit from the Tree of Knowledge.  She in turn tempts her husband,
Adam.  This is the original sin from which all mankind's troubles
flow.  The life of pleasure is over:  man must work and woman must
suffer childbirth pains.  The two are driven from Paradise to make
their home in the rest of the World, comforted by the knowledge that
the Son will become man in a later generation and will die for their
sins.

Now we turn to the plot as Milton relates it in Paradise Lost.

PARADISE LOST: THE NARRATIVE SEQUENCE OF EVENTS

Satan has been in Hell for nine days, lying on a burning lake where
he and his companions have been thrown by God and his angels.  He
moans to his companion Beelzebub about their terrible fate, but he
resolves to continue his fight against God through other means.

He and Beelzebub raise themselves painfully from the lake and gather
the fallen angels on the shore, where they build a great hall called
Pandemonium.  In it they hold a great council meeting about their
next move.

One of the leaders counsels open war.  Two others oppose the idea,
saying they've had enough of God's fury and will make the best of it
in Hell.  Satan tells them of a rumor he had heard in Heaven that
another kind of being was to be created.  In order to find out how
this creature could be corrupted for their purposes, he volunteers to
go on a spying mission.

As he leaves, he meets Sin, who is his lover and daughter, and Death,
his son and grandson, who guard the gate.  They let him out into
Chaos, the fundamental material of the universe from which God has
fashioned Hell and the World.

Meanwhile in Heaven God foretells what is to happen and asks which of
the angels will offer to die for man.  The Son takes on the task and
is praised for his sacrifice.

Satan alights on the top of the World (the universe, not the earth)
and looks up into Heaven and down into the concentric spheres of the
planets.  He flies down to the sun, where he asks directions of
Uriel, the angel who guards the sun.

As Satan watches Adam and Eve in the Garden of Paradise, Uriel flies
down to warn the angel Gabriel that Satan has deceived them both and
is on earth.  Satan overhears Adam telling Eve that they are
forbidden to eat the fruit of the Tree of Knowledge.  He conceals
himself until night, when he becomes a toad and sits beside Eve's
ear.  Two guardian angels, Ithuriel and Zephon, find him and bring
him to Gabriel.  Gabriel threatens to drag Satan in chains to Hell if
he's found in the garden again.

Eve tells Adam her terrible dream, induced by Satan.  She dreamed
that she ate the fruit and became a goddess flying above the earth.
She is very frightened and needs Adam's comfort.  When they go out to
their daily chores in the garden, they find that the archangel
Raphael has come to visit them.

In a very long flashback, Raphael tells Adam (Eve is sometimes there
and sometimes doing her housework) what happened before he was
created.  He tells the story for a reason:  he wants to warn Adam
against Satan, who, he feels sure, has some evil design in coming to
earth.

Satan was originally called Lucifer and was one of the highest angels
in the heavenly host.  On the occasion of the Great Year, which comes
every 36,000 years, God proclaims his Son equal to him.  Lucifer's
pride is so hurt that he draws away one-third of the angels with him
into the North, where they prepare to fight a war against God.  One
of the number, Abdiel, is appalled at Satan's rebellion and refuses
to be part of it.  He runs back to the Mount of God, where he finds
that the faithful angels already know about the rebellion and are
preparing for war.

The War in Heaven lasts three days.  On the first day, the rebel
angels don't do well.  They experience pain for the first time,
although their wounds are never fatal because they are immortal.  On
the second day, they bring out cannons which they have built
overnight and introduce gunpowder into Heaven.  At first the heavenly
host is bowled over, but they recover and throw hills and mountains
as if they were snowballs.

On the third day God sends out his Son in his war chariot.  It is
soon over:  the angels are driven over the edge of Heaven into Hell.
That brings us back to the point where the poem began.

Raphael continues the story, telling Adam about God's creation of the
earth.  Adam reciprocates by telling Raphael about the making of Eve
from his own rib and his great love for her.  Raphael cautions him
against worshipping her excessively and then leaves them in Paradise.

The next morning Eve suggests that they should work separately in
order to get more gardening done.  Adam reluctantly allows this,
despite his misgivings.  In the form of a serpent, Satan tempts Eve
to eat fruit from the Tree of Knowledge, using the argument that he,
a beast, received the gift of speech after eating it and God hasn't
killed him.  She finally eats the fruit and then persuades Adam to
eat some as well.  Because he loves her so much and does not want to
be parted from her, he eats it.

The Fall has happened.  Adam and Eve copulate like beasts and fall
asleep like drunkards.  When they awaken they realize for the first
time that they are naked, and they begin to quarrel, furiously
reproaching each other.

The universe reacts with groans to the dreadful event.  God sends
down the Son to judge Adam and Eve.  Their happiness and immortality
are taken from them.  Adam must work and Eve must suffer the pain of
childbirth, and both must die.  The serpent will be punished by
always being the enemy of man.

Satan begins his return journey in what he thinks is triumph.  At the
top of the World he meets Sin and Death, who have built a road
leading from the gate of Hell to the World.  Satan joyfully shows
them their prey, waiting for them down on earth.  He returns to
Pandemonium, where the fallen angels are waiting for him in council.
He announces his triumph, but they all immediately become snakes and
the entire hall is filled with hissing.  Although they eventually
regain their shape, they must each year become snakes for a time to
remind them that Satan became a snake to deceive man.

As Sin and Death move into their new quarters, drooling at the
thought of feasts to come, God causes the angels to make the World as
it is now--with extremes of weather, seasons, and bad planetary
influences.  Surveying the wreck of the beautiful World they have
known, Adam and Eve throw themselves on God's mercy.

He responds to their prayers and the Son's pleas for them by agreeing
that Death shall not strike them immediately, but they must leave the
Garden of Paradise.  Michael, the warrior archangel, is sent down to
escort them out of Paradise into Eden and to leave a guard on the
gate so that no one can enter.

But Michael gives them some comfort.  He shows Adam what is to happen
in the generations following, including Noah's flood, the descent
into Egypt, the coming into the Promised Land, and the incarnation of
God as Jesus Christ.  Adam is greatly encouraged when he realizes
that the great blessing of Christ and the gift of the Holy Spirit are
possible for man only because of what he did.  His sin is a "happy
fault," since ultimately it will bring so much good to man.

Calmer but apprehensive, Adam and Eve leave the Garden of Paradise.
As they walk away, they look back to see the fiery weapons of the
angels guarding the gate.  They look forward to their new life.

PARADISE LOST: THE NARRATIVE STRUCTURE OF PARADISE LOST

The following schematic plan of the narrative structure of the poem
makes it easy for you to see the distribution of the events.  Note
that the poem is divided into 12 books.

     I. Hell. Satan rallies the fallen angels
    II. Hell. The council in Pandemonium
   III. Heaven. The council in Heaven
        Limbo and the Sun. Satan's journey
    IV. Paradise. Satan spies on Adam and Eve
     V. Paradise. Raphael arrives
        Flashback: War in Heaven
    VI. Flashback: War in Heaven
   VII. Flashback: Creation of the world
  VIII. Flashback: Creation of Adam and formation of Eve
    IX. Paradise. The Fall
     X. Heaven. Judgment
        Chaos. Sin and Death build bridge
        Hell. Fallen angels turn into snakes
        Paradise. Adam and Eve quarrel
    XI. Paradise. Sentence on Adam and Eve
        Flash-forward: The World until Noah's flood
   XII. Flash-forward: The World to the second coming
        Paradise. Adam and Eve leave for Eden


The characterization of Paradise Lost is peculiar.  Only two
characters, Adam and Eve, are people.  Even they are different from
us because they have not been born in the conventional way and
neither is a member of a family.  We don't see them in relation to
other people because there aren't any.

All the other characters are immortal and have powers beyond our
human understanding.  But to describe them Milton must use human
terms.  That works to the advantage of some and the disadvantage of
others.

PARADISE LOST: SATAN

Is Satan the hero or the villain of Paradise Lost?  That's the
question that has intrigued readers since the poem first appeared.
It's too easy to say that Milton intended him for a villain but he
turned out a hero.  More probably Satan gets the benefit of the fact
that Milton has to use human terms to describe him.  It is
easier--sad to say--to make absolute evil understandable than to do
the same for absolute good.

Satan is an endlessly intriguing character.  You will not be able to
make up your mind about him even after you've read the poem and
written essays on him.  You will find yourself using him to
characterize people you know about:  "He's a bit like Satan in
Paradise Lost--unbelievably talented but throwing it all away because
he won't accept authority." Such people are fascinating and
attractive, but they're infuriating when they waste it all for what
they think is freedom.

All the main characters in Paradise Lost are concerned with freedom.
Those who understand true freedom know that it consists of obeying
God's will without question.  (Abdiel is the best example--look at
the discussion of his character further on.) Those who do not
understand it think freedom means being free from someone else's will
and following your own.  Satan is chief among them.  He is so
offended by God's announcement of the Son's equality with him that he
wants to be free of what he calls "tyranny."

Satan's essential characteristic is deception.  He deceives himself,
he deceives others.  To trick the angel of the sun, Uriel, he changes
shape to become a polite young cherub eager to see God's creation.
When he approaches Adam and Eve, he changes into whatever animal will
get him close to them.  He becomes a toad to squat by Eve's ear and
give her a nightmare.  And of course he deceives Eve in the shape of
a serpent.

His seduction of Eve is a masterpiece of persuasion.  He knows
exactly which buttons to push--her vulnerability to flattery, her
desire for power, her susceptibility to a logical argument.  Milton
tells us that he summons up all the orator's art for this final push:
his speech is certainly a textbook model.  To his talents as leader
and inventor, we can add the deception and polish of a Madison Avenue
advertising man.

When we last see Satan he has become the serpent whose shape he
borrowed to seduce Eve.  There is little sense that he understands
the punishment he will eventually receive.  He thinks he has won.

I am to bruise his heel;
His seed, when is not set, shall bruise my head:
A world who would not purchase with a bruise,
Or much more grievous pain?
(X, 498-501)

Has Satan won his fight against God?  Or is it just not in his
character to understand his defeat?

PARADISE LOST: BEELZEBUB

Beelzebub, whose name during the Middle Ages meant simply "devil," is
Satan's second-in-command.  He behaves like a foil for Satan,
allowing his leader to demonstrate his best qualities.  Beelzebub is
quite content with his reflected glory.

PARADISE LOST: BELIAL

Belial appears twice in Paradise Lost, once when he advises the
angels not to fight again and a second time during the War in Heaven
when he makes bad puns with Satan about the cannon.

PARADISE LOST: MOLOCH

Moloch is the archetype of mindless force.  He fought against Gabriel
and was split in two, but since he is immortal he soon recovered.  In
the debate in Pandemonium he quite unreasonably counsels open war,
without much sense of how victory can be attained in view of the
recent devastating defeat.  Where Belial is all charm and
acquiescence, Moloch is blind and pointless defiance.

PARADISE LOST: MAMMON

Mammon is the engineer of Pandemonium, the miner who finds the ore
for the golden budding.  He is "the least erected spirit that fell"
(I, 679), because his mind is on money.

PARADISE LOST: OTHER DEVILS

Nisroc has a single speech, urging the rebel angels on the first
night of the War in Heaven to do something quickly because he can't
stand pain.  Mulciber has no speeches.  He is the architect of
Pandemonium:  Many other devils are named as they slowly move from
the bunting lake to the shore for the military parade.  They are all
false gods, those who seduced the Israelites away from God in the Old
Testament, or the classical gods of Egypt, Greece, and Rome.

PARADISE LOST: THE TRINITY

Christianity is based on a mystic trinity, a three-in-one,
one-in-three godhead, God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy
Ghost or Holy Spirit.  All three have existed since the beginning of
time, but the Son is only revealed at the celebration of the Great
Year, and the Holy Spirit does not appear in Paradise Lost at all
except in a flash-forward to the time after the Ascension of Christ
when the Spirit is sent as a comforter to man.  When speaking of
Paradise Lost, by "God" we generally mean God the Father, and "the
Son" means God the Son.

PARADISE LOST: GOD

Like Satan, God is a problem for readers of Paradise Lost.  We like
Satan too much and God not enough.  People have suggested that in
each case their characters are already given:  we know God is good
and we know Satan is bad, so neither has to be shown in action doing
what is expected of him.  But the truth remains that we'd rather have
Satan's company than God's.

He elevates the Son without preparing the angels for the news, and
indeed without any obvious reason, but that's his privilege.  The
rest of the universe must adapt to him, not he to it.

He loses more than one-third of the angels to Satan.  One critic has
said a loss of that size would make one question God's management
style.  And there is a certain teasing quality to his actions:  if he
could so easily order the fallen angels to be pushed out of Heaven,
why did he let the war go on for three days?  It seems capricious.

But he has virtues:  he is a just and merciful judge.  He listens to
the Son's prayers for Adam and Eve and does not kill them, even
though that was the punishment for eating fruit from the Tree of
Knowledge.  He does everything he can to warn Adam and Eve, sending
them Gabriel to guard them and Raphael to explain their danger to
them.  And he is deeply proud of the Son and what he represents, love
of man.

PARADISE LOST: THE SON

As a character, the Son has an important function in Paradise Lost as
the exact opposite of Satan.  He is put into parallel situations to
demonstrate right behavior when Satan demonstrates what is wrong.  In
Book III, when we first meet the Son, he willingly takes on the job
of dying for mankind:

Behold me then, me for him, life for life,
I offer, on me let thine anger fall;
Account me man; I for his sake will leave
Thy bosom...
(III, 236-239)

Satan too has willingly taken on a courageous task, but he did it to
destroy mankind, to complete his revenge on God.  The Son always
obeys God immediately, with a grace that shows his perfect freedom.
He is the executive branch and God the legislative branch of the
heavenly government.  He can use the power of God, for example when
he rides out in his chariot and pushes the rebel angels out of
Heaven, but he doesn't abuse it.

His great characteristic is his special love for man.  From the
moment that he accepts his position as the future redeemer, he
represents man's interests before God.  When he judges Adam and Eve
after the Fall, he does so as "both judge and savior sent," and
immediately after pronouncing judgment he begins to look after them.
He gives them clothes made of the skins of beasts and shields them
from God's sight.

In the flash-forward in Book XII, we see the culmination of the Son's
devotion to man, when he is born, lives, and dies for man.  To him
God gives the privilege of cleaning out Hell on the day of judgment,
when a new Heaven and a new earth are created.

The Son is not blandly acquiescent.  He knows that the sacrifice he
will make for man is going to be painful beyond belief.  He is quite
capable of reminding God that the force of man's fall will be felt by
him--"worst on me must light." The Son has dignity without coldness
and obedience without fawning.  It is a great deal easier to like him
than God, for his function in the Trinity is to be man's side of God.

PARADISE LOST: RAPHAEL

Raphael is the archangel who spends the most time with Adam and Eve
and therefore with us.  He comes down in Book V and doesn't return to
Heaven until the end of Book VII.  He is a magnificent figure with
six pairs of wings which drape around him like a many-colored robe.
He walks in great dignity to meet Adam and then acts as a gracious
guest, obviously enjoying the food and complimenting Eve on it.

Raphael is a great teacher and storyteller.  He explains everything
that Adam wants to know--sometimes a little more than we want to
know.  Through his eyes we see the War in Heaven and the creation.

PARADISE LOST: MICHAEL

Michael is the warrior archangel.  He leads the heavenly forces in
the War in Heaven, with Gabriel as his second-in-command.  It is
Michael who engages in single combat with Satan, challenging him
first in a speech where he threatens to send him to Hell.  In their
battle, which is like a conflict between two planets in its enormous
scope, Michael wounds Satan with his great two-handed sword.  It
brings the fight to an end, but Satan soon recovers.

God chooses Michael to carry out the judgment that Adam and Eve must
leave the Garden of Paradise.  Adam understands the significance of
the choice as soon as he sees him:  Michael is armed, dressed in
military splendor.  He has come to carry out a sentence, although
with grace and mercy.

PARADISE LOST: GABRIEL

Gabriel has the somewhat thankless job of guarding Paradise.  It is
thankless because Satan slips by Gabriel and the guards twice.  After
the first occasion, when Gabriel, Ithuriel, and Zephon confront
Satan, Gabriel is willing to fight him, but God forbids with a sign
in the sky.

PARADISE LOST: URIEL

Uriel is the angel who guards the sun.  Satan deceives him in the
form of a little cherub asking his way to the new creation, earth.
Despite the fact that Uriel is one of the seven angels closest to the
throne of God and is known to have sharper sight than any other
angel, he cannot perceive the deception.  This is not a defect of
character but a theological condition.  Only God can see through
hypocrisy--neither men nor angels have that power.  Uriel speaks with
warm encouragement to the young apprentice angel.

PARADISE LOST: ABDIEL

This is the character Milton identified with.  Abdiel is a rebel
against rebels, the one angel who realizes before it is too late that
Satan's cause is wrong.  His name means "servant of God," and that he
proves himself to be.

He stands in the middle of the rebel angels and tells Satan he is
wrong.  Satan does not understand true freedom--the service of God
who made him--but calls it tyranny.  Abdiel will not hear God
blasphemed (a religious term meaning "insulted").  His impassioned
speech shows a clear understanding of a correct relationship to God.
It makes us wonder why he came to be among the one-third of the
angels who followed Satan to his headquarters in the North.

He receives the praise he deserves from God:
Well done, thou hast fought
The better fight, who single has maintained
Against revolted multitudes the cause
Of truth, in word mightier than they in arms
(VI, 29-32)

The praise from God and his own conviction of right make Abdiel bold
enough to challenge Satan on the first day of the war.  He steps out
from the army and addresses Satan as a "fool." Satan attempts to mock
him and the others by calling them lazy:  they'd rather take the
easier path of serving God with "feast and song" instead of seeking
their freedom.

Abdiel's last speech is the best exposition of "true freedom" in the
poem:  it is freedom to serve the highest, as God and nature both
command.  It is not freedom to seek to exercise your own will, but
servitude to yourself.  Satan is welcome to reign in Hell; Abdiel
will serve "in Heaven God ever blest." And with that he strikes the
first blow of the War in Heaven.  It is his privilege as the champion
of truth.

PARADISE LOST: OTHER ANGELS

Ithuriel finds Satan squatting next to Eve's ear while she sleeps.
As he touches the toad with his spear, it immediately becomes Satan.
A slanging match follows.  Zephon accompanies Ithuriel on the
mission, and together they bring back Satan to Gabriel.  Zophiel is
the cherub who sees the approach of the rebel army on the second day
of the War in Heaven and warns the heavenly host.

PARADISE LOST: ADAM

The clue to Adam's character is his relationship to Eve.  It ought to
be his relationship to God, but it isn't--and that fact causes Adam's
fall.  Adam has to argue with God to get Eve (although it is only a
mate he seeks at that point).  When he sees her he falls so deeply in
love with her that everything good seems embodied in her.  He knows
that Eve is not as close to God as he is, and he realizes that it is
her beauty that he worships.  Love is supreme and love "leads up to
Heaven."

It is for love and for Eve that Adam eats the apple.  As soon as he
sees her with a branch from the Tree of Knowledge in her hand, he
knows what has happened--as she does not.  In his soliloquy, he makes
his decision:

for with thee
Certain my resolution is to die;
How can I live without thee?
(IX, 906-908)

So his fall is different from Eve's.  He does not directly fall to
temptation, but to his desire to be with her, no matter what happens.
God the Son puts his finger on the matter right away:  "Was she thy
God, that thou didst obey / Before his voice?" (X, 145-146).  Adam
has upset the proper order of things.  Nothing must come before God.

He certainly learns from experience, although too late.  Before the
Fall, he allows Eve to persuade him that it is all right for her to
work in the Garden separately from him--the fatal decision.  But
afterward he accepts neither of her suggestions--that they not have
children and that they commit suicide.

Following his initial despair after the Fall, Adam's character
improves.  He forgives Eve with the sensible idea that they must now
be each other's comfort in a world changed from the Paradise to the
kingdom of Sin and Death.  It is Adam who suggests that they should
plead for God's mercy.  He asserts his leadership by insisting that
Eve leave him alone to speak with Michael.  And it is to Adam
alone--Eve sleeps under a benign drug--Michael reveals the future.

Adam's relationship to the angels who visit him from Heaven is always
courteous and correct, for he knows that he is inferior to them in
the hierarchy established by God.  He has no difficulty with that
position.  It seems as if Adam was made to be a follower rather than
a leader until the Fall brought him face to face with his
responsibility.

Finally he has learned.  His last speech, as Michael points out, is
"The sum / Of wisdom." In it Adam says that it is best to love and
fear God; to depend on him; to work against evil, content with small
victories; to stand up for the sake of truth, no matter what it
costs; and to die understanding Death is the gate to life.

This is very hard won wisdom.  But Adam is the first man, and like
all of us after him, he can only learn through bitter experience.

PARADISE LOST: EVE

Looking at Eve through twentieth-century eyes, we find it difficult
to separate her character from our feelings of indignation about the
role she is given.  Certainly Milton was sexist; he could not be
otherwise given his times and his religion.  He has to tell a story
that was itself sexist, because it is a myth with a social purpose.

Poor Eve suffers from Milton's time and place.  She is the "weaker,"
she was made not directly in God's image but from part of Adam's
body, she must worship God through Adam, not in her own right.  She
is beautiful, yet her beauty is her downfall when the serpent
flatters her, and it is downgraded in value by both Adam and Michael.

When left to herself she acts in no way that could be faulted.  But
it is Eve's ear, not Adam's, into which Satan pours the bad dream.
And the effects of it cause her to argue with Adam that she should go
separately to work in the garden.  (There is no evidence that she had
ever suggested this before the dream.) And of course it is Eve who is
tempted by the serpent.

Her behavior during the first exchange with the serpent can't be
blamed.  This is the first time she has ever heard another creature
speak except for Adam and those angelic but long-winded visitors.
She listens with natural curiosity, but when they get to the tree,
she says they might have spared themselves the walk.  There is no
thought in her mind of doing anything forbidden.

What convinces her are Satan's arguments.  They are based on reason,
and reason is a deceiver in Milton's theology.  Right reason is the
following of God's law absolutely.  False reason is man's own logic.
To trust to logic is to put your powers ahead of God's--the
fundamental error.  We have to sympathize with Eve in trusting her
own reason.  She's only human.

Her reactions after the Fall make that very clear.  She wants Adam to
eat the fruit not for his own benefit but for a self-serving reason:
if she dies, Adam will get another Eve.  But she never says that to
him.  And she puts the blame squarely on him for allowing her to
suffer temptation:

Being as I am, why didst not thou the head
Command me absolutely not to go?
(IX, 1156-1157)

The quarrel is only too true to life.

Yet it is Eve who knows how to get out of the quarrel and on with the
rest of their lives.  She falls at Adam's feet, even though he has
repulsed her first effort at reconciliation.  Her submission wins him
over.  Like Adam, she has become sadder, wiser, and more mature after
the Fall.  She is very unhappy at being forced to leave Paradise.
It's a bit like a corporate wife being told that she has to leave her
home when her husband is transferred.  But just like the wife, Eve
realizes the truth of Michael's remark that her home is wherever her
husband is.

When Michael prepares to tell Adam the future history of mankind, his
descendants, he puts Eve to sleep with a drug.  Yet when she wakes
she knows all that has been said and is comforted by the thought that
her "promised seed," the son of the Virgin Mary, the "second Eve,"
will redeem mankind.  This symbolizes a different way of
knowing--woman's intuition, direct instinctive knowledge rather than
explanation and reasoning.  It is another sign that "women are
different."

Eve's last words refer to her consciousness of guilt for "my wilful
crime." You might think Eve gets a bum rap.  At least reflect that we
no longer think that she represents the truth about women.

PARADISE LOST: SIN AND DEATH

Sin and Death are not characters but allegorical figures.  That means
they do what their names say they do.  Whenever you see them, try to
translate what they are doing into its meaning.  Sin was born from
Lucifer's head at the moment of his rebellion; this means that Sin
begins with rebellion against just authority.  Death was born as a
result of an incestuous relationship between Sin and Satan; the
meaning of this should be obvious.

Sin and Death keep the gates of Hell.  When Sin opens the gate, it
can never be shut again (another moral for us all).  The mother and
son together build the road from Hell to earth, so that while they
are causing trouble with all the creatures there, the devils from
Hell can easily travel to earth--and the condemned souls from earth
will easily slide down to Hell.  One of the horrible figures who keep
running in and out of Sin's womb, Discord, begins to make food for
her incestuous father Death as soon as they all get to earth.

We still use allegorical figures today.  Our best-known one is
Liberty, the statue in New York harbor.  All her features, especially
the lamp she carries, are meant to symbolize the freedom offered by
this country.


PARADISE LOST: SETTING

There is a built-in problem in talking about the setting of Paradise
Lost:  words we normally use, like "world," "universe," and "earth,"
have different meanings in the poem.  Let's take a tour of the cosmos
so that you can see the differences.

The largest frame of action is what we would call the
universe--everything imaginable.  Looking at it schematically, Heaven
is at the top and Hell at the bottom.  Both extend infinitely, Heaven
upwards and Hell downwards.  Between the two, filling all available
space, is Chaos, which, like its name, is shapeless and confused.
Chaos must have been the original stuff from which the other places
were formed because Chaos (the name for the ruler as well as the
place) complains that he has lost territory when God made Hell, and
then lost more when God made a home for man.

Hanging in the center of the cosmos is what Milton calls "the World."
We loosely understand by that word the earth on which we live, but
Milton means what we call the universe.  Milton's World is a sphere
made up of ten concentric circles.  The earth is at the center.  Some
of the circles revolving round it contain the planets (including the
sun), the heavens, and a watery firmament.

The World (our universe) hangs from Heaven by a golden chain.  At the
top there is an opening, where three directions converge:  standing
at the opening (as Satan does in Book III), you can look up the
golden stairway to Heaven, down through the concentric circles to
earth, and out into Chaos.  When Sin and Death build their bridge
across Chaos, they begin it at the Gate of Hell and end it at the
opening to the World.

The earth for most of the poem does not look like anything we see
now.  The features that characterize it--seasons, weather, mountains,
and valleys--are all brought into the world after the Fall.  Angels
are sent by God to turn the axis of the earth off dead center, thus
introducing changes in climate and length of day.  In Paradise, all
kinds of animals and plants live together, without distinction of
habitat.  Flowers bloom constantly, and roses have no thorns.

Paradise is the name for the garden where Adam and Eve live.  In the
Bible, their home is called the Garden of Eden.  Milton has
interpreted this strictly.  Paradise is the garden part of Eden.
Eden is a land usually identified with Mesopotamia, the region
between the rivers Tigris and Euphrates.  But there is a tradition
that Paradise was an island in the South seas, so Milton has it moved
there during the flood.

The garden, Paradise, is watered by rivers that run under the
boundaries (guarded by the angels) and come up as fountains.  It is a
real garden to the extent that it needs pruning and its fruits must
be harvested, but there doesn't seem to be any weeding to be done and
there is no mention of snails.

The important point to remember is that the entire setting is
imaginary.  The familiar terms should not mislead you.  You are
looking not at a landscape, but into Milton's mind.

PARADISE LOST: THEMES

Here is a list of the themes in Paradise Lost.  They will all be
studied more extensively in the discussion of the poem.

1. JUSTIFYING THE WAYS OF GOD TO MAN

The poem explains an entire theology.  It is about the coming of sin
into the world through the temptation of Adam and Eve by Satan after
his defeat in Heaven.  If Milton has justified the ways of God to
man, all our questions about our relationship to God should be
answered by implication from the poem.  The success of the
explanation of course depends on whether you accept the Christian
world view--even whether you accept Milton's special brand of
Christian individualism.  The task of explaining an entire physical
and moral system is not one we attempt today.  We divide our systems,
believing that the world is too complex for a single theory to
explain.

2. GOD'S OMNIPOTENCE, OMNISCIENCE, AND FREE WILL

The poem insists that all events are brought about by choice.  Satan
chooses to rebel, Adam and Eve choose to eat the apple, knowing the
consequences.  Every man and angel has free will.  At the same time,
God knows everything that is to happen.  But his foreknowledge has no
effect on choice--the universe is like a clock God winds up and sets
going:  each of its parts performs without interference from God.

You will keep puzzling over this explanation throughout the poem.  It
sometimes seems that God is callous about his creation because if he
is omnipotent, why doesn't he stop evil from happening?  On the other
hand, perhaps God does not have the power to stop the clock or alter
it once it's got going.  In that case, there must be something even
more powerful than God which programs him.  It's an endlessly
fascinating question.  The poem will give you lots of examples for a
continuing argument.

3. INDIVIDUAL RESPONSIBILITY

Everyone makes his or her own decisions.  That means no one can blame
anyone else for what happens.  But there is a great deal of blaming
in the story.  Only when people accept responsibility for their own
choices do they find peace within themselves and forgiveness and
mercy from God.

4. THE TRUE NATURE OF FREEDOM

True freedom is total submission to God's will and acceptance of what
he wants in the world.  It is freedom from self and self-will.  Satan
symbolizes the wrong kind of freedom, rebellion against just
authority.  You are free when you understand where you fit in
relationship to God and in the hierarchy of nature.

5. REASON

The highest exercise of man's reason is to understand and love
God--and to trust him.  This means accepting what may seem illogical
to human reason.  It also means not trusting human reason.  Human
reason may deceive because it is limited and cannot necessarily
penetrate God's purposes, which are beyond logic.  It was perfectly
reasonable for Eve to conclude that she would not die because the
serpent had not died when he ate fruit from the Tree of Knowledge.
But she was limiting fallible human reason.  She ought to have gone
beyond the logical argument and trusted true reason--God's word.

6. THE HIERARCHICAL ARRANGEMENT OF THE UNIVERSE

Everything is arranged in an order, beginning with God at the highest
point of all, going down through the angels to man, and from man down
to beasts and plants.  Each part of the hierarchy has its own order:
in Heaven, the angels are lower than God and must take their orders
from him.  On earth, Adam is closer to God than Eve, and she must
take her orders from him.  The poem is about the violation of the
order, first by Satan, then by Eve, and then by Adam, who puts Eve
ahead of God.

7. HISTORY HAS A PURPOSE AND AN END

Although devastating in its results, the Fall is only part of a
historical process.  Adam's fall leads through many generations to
the incarnation of God the Son as Jesus Christ.  His fall is
therefore a "happy fault" ("felix culpa") because it leads to the
fulfillment of God's purpose.  When Christ dies for man, he begins
the process of redemption which eventually leads to the Last Judgment
and the Second Coming.  This will be the end of history, for then
there will be a new Heaven and a new earth.

PARADISE LOST: SOURCES

The sources of Paradise Lost are Milton's voluminous reading.  The
story of Adam and Eve and the temptation comes from the first few
chapters of the Book of Genesis.

The story of the War in Heaven does not occur in one single place.
References to it occur in the Book of Revelation, the last book in
the New Testament.  Other places where hints of a great war and of
Hell are to be found include the Book of Isaiah in the Old Testament
and what are called the apocryphal books of the Old Testament.
Milton also adds some details from the Book of Ezekiel, also in the
Old Testament.

The vast majority of the allusions and references are to the Bible
and to the Greek and Latin classics.  There are also references to
Arthurian legend, Italian epics, and earlier English literature,
especially the work of Spenser, the author of the moral epic The
Faerie Queene.

PARADISE LOST: STYLE: THE POETIC METER

The meter of Paradise Lost is iambic pentameter, the meter in which
Shakespeare wrote his plays.  It is often called "blank verse"
because it doesn't rhyme.  Each line consists of five heavy stresses
and five minor stresses.  In theory a line should read like this:

da-dum, da-dum, da-dum, da-dum, da-dum

It happens to be the almost natural rhythm of the English language,
which is why it is easy to read blank verse when you forget your fear
of poetry.

Very few lines are strictly regular in the meter.  Even the famous
first line reverses the stress in at least two places, where da-dum
is replaced by dum-da and dum-dum.  It also has one more syllable
than the ten prescribed by theory.

English poetic meter is not the simple matter of counting feet that
is often taught.  It is a very complex interaction of stress, length,
and quality of sound.  It is better to forget the complications and
read the poetry as naturally as possible.  You will then be able to
appreciate how Milton varies his rhythm and the musical quality of
the words to fit what he wants to say.  Read it out loud whenever you
can, especially in the places where the speeches alternate like those
in a play.

NOTE:  HOW TO QUOTE POETRY WHEN WRITING A PAPER Although you can
ignore the line endings when you read the verse (and you should do so
to make the reading move faster), please don't do that when you quote
in an essay or paper.  For quotations of two lines or less, you may
run the quotation along within your paragraph, but then you must use
quotation marks and slash marks to indicate where one line ends and
the next begins:  "Of man's first disobedience and the fruit / Of
that forbidden tree...," for example.

When you are quoting three lines or more, put them separately from
your own writing.  Don't use quotation marks, and copy the lines
exactly as you see them on the page:

Of Man's first disobedience and the fruit
Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste
Brought death into the world and all our woe.
With loss of Eden...

If you need to indicate where the quotation comes from, use the Roman
numeral for the number of the book and Arabic numbers for the lines.
Put all this into parentheses, and place it after the final
punctuation.  For example, the last line of the quotation above would
look like this:

With loss of Eden...
(I, 1-4)

PARADISE LOST: BOOK I

The first book (1) introduces the theme of the entire poem, (2)
introduces us to Satan and the fallen angels, and (3) tells us that
we are reading an epic poem.  In order to put himself in the epic
tradition of The Odyssey and The Aeneid, Milton uses devices like the
invocation, epic similes, and catalogs.  They'll be explained as we
come to them.  They are used heavily in the first two books to
establish the credentials of Paradise Lost as an epic, then they
occur less often in the later books.

This book begins, as they all do, with Milton's prose summary, "The
Argument." He is using the word in the sense of "subject matter," not
as we do meaning a verbal clash.  You will see "argument" used again
with this meaning in line 24.  The prose summary tells you the story,
so you can use it as reference.

In Book I we meet one of the story's main characters, Satan.  Whether
he is the hero or the villain is one of the questions you'll face
continually in Paradise Lost.  It is obvious from this first book
that Satan has qualities we all admire.  He is a fearless leader,
eloquent, inspiring, resourceful, even sympathetic to his followers'
sufferings.  Is he portrayed with these virtues because Milton wants
to show us how we can be deceived by heroism?  Have you found
yourself attracted to "friends" who weren't good for you?

It is (unfortunately!) easy to identify with Satan when we first meet
him in the imaginary landscape of Hell.  We have all felt angry,
bitter, and vengeful after a brush with authority.  Perhaps you've
received an F in a class where you thought you would pass, or gotten
a speeding ticket when you were sure you weren't observed.  These are
small-scale personal grievances, but your feelings are intense.
Satan's grievances result from conflict with God and have universal
consequences.  He wants to strike back at God for throwing him into a
stinking pit of darkness, and he's going to do it by dragging us all
down there with him.

PARADISE LOST: LINES 1-25. THE INVOCATION

Epics traditionally begin with a call for divine help in the task the
poet has set for himself.  Classical epic poets usually asked for the
help of the Muses, the daughters of Zeus who watched over the arts.
But Milton's muse is "Heavenly," Urania, who inspired Moses, the
author of the Biblical Book of Genesis.

Milton wants to remind us that Paradise Lost is not only an epic, it
is a Christian epic, and therefore--in his eyes--superior to its
heathen predecessors.  Milton wants to "soar above the Aonian Mount,"
that is, to exceed the accomplishment of the classical Muses.  He
will do this because of his "great Argument," his subject, which is
nothing less ambitious than explaining the ways of God to men.  Keep
asking yourself whether Milton manages to do so.  If he doesn't
succeed, what has he explained?

PARADISE LOST: LINES 25-83. THE SCENE IN HELL

The Holy Spirit is asked to begin the story by naming the cause of
mankind's fall.  That of course is Satan, the first character we
meet.  Milton has told us in the Argument that the poem "hastes into
the midst of things," because this too is a classical storytelling
device.  We begin with Satan in Hell nine days after he lost the War
in Heaven, which would be just about the midpoint of the story if it
were told chronologically.  We shall go forward and backward to hear
how and why he rebelled and fought against God.

This kind of storytelling is quite familiar to us from flashbacks in
movies, plays, and TV drama.  In fact, the first book of Paradise
Lost is the dramatic hook which gets you interested, so that you will
want to find out what happened and why.  In the flickering flames of
a burning lake (a contradiction which symbolizes the chaos of Hell)
we barely see Satan as he slowly becomes conscious of what has
happened to him and how far he is now from Heaven, where he had hoped
to reign.

He is accompanied by a vast number of followers, one-third of all the
angels in Heaven.  Next to him is Beelzebub, his trusted
second-in-command.  Beelzebub hasn't got the same fire for revenge as
Satan.  He expresses the despair which you might expect from a
defeated angel who has been banished forever from Heaven.
Nevertheless he is always loyal to Satan and accepts his leadership
without question.

PARADISE LOST: LINES 84-191. SATAN AND BEELZEBUB

Satan's defiance and his desire for revenge overcome his pain.  At
first he seems dismayed as he addresses Beelzebub, once like him
among the brightest angels and now "O how fallen!" But as soon as he
speaks of God, "He with his thunder," Satan's rage overtakes his
sympathy.  He will not repent or change.  "All is not lost" while he
has his "unconquerable will / And courage never to submit or yield."
He will continue the war, either by force or by guile.  Because we
know the story of Adam and Eve and how Satan will corrupt them,
"guile" is like a wink at a knowing audience.

You may think that Beelzebub takes a more realistic view of the
fallen angels' terrible situation because he thinks further rebellion
is futile.  He regrets what has happened.  The fallen angels may feel
their strength undiminished, but perhaps God has left them that
strength only so that they can work as slaves in Hell and has allowed
them their immortality so that they can feel acutely their eternal
punishment.

Satan is a good leader who knows when his subordinates need to be
jerked out of what looks like self-pity.  "To be weak is miserable"
he declares, as he sets out a program of action:  everything that God
does must be opposed, even if God tries to bring good out of evil:

To do aught good never will be our task,
But ever to do ill our sole delight.

Then he draws Beelzebub's attention to the fact that God has recalled
his forces and left the fallen angels to suffer in Hell.  Things now
seem calm enough for them to leave the lake and hold a meeting of
their troops on a "dreary plain," to plot their revenge strategy.

PARADISE LOST: LINES 192-375. THE EPIC SIMILES.

As Satan prepares to rise, Milton gives us the first physical
description we have of the Archenemy.  To do this, he makes use of
another classical device, the epic simile.

NOTE:  EPIC SIMILES A simile is a comparison of one thing or idea to
another; an epic simile is an extended comparison, often taking up
several lines, in which the epic poet elaborates so much that
additional ideas are brought in.  Epic similes often occur in
clusters, as they do here.  Satan is so big that his trunk covers
"many a rood," a rood being about a quarter acre.  He is as big as
the Titans and Giants who rebelled against Jove (Zeus), the supreme
god of classical mythology.  But it isn't a simple comparison of
size--like Satan, the Titans and Giants were rebels against
authority.

Giants and Titans aren't enough to emphasize Satan's size; he's also
like a whale.  Again this isn't a simple statement.  This whale, like
Satan, is a deceiver, because he seems to be an island and attracts a
lost sailor to anchor in his hide.  We can imagine what happens when
the whale goes down.  This story would have been well known to
Milton's first readers, who had been brought up on "bestiaries,"
descriptions of animals in terms of the moral lessons they provide
for mankind.

As Satan raises his huge head, Milton explains that he can move
because God grants him free will:  "Left him at large to his own dark
designs." This is an important theme throughout Paradise Lost.  (In
Book III, God explains the doctrine of free will in his first
speech.) God created all beings capable of action--angels and
men--with free will, so that they can choose what to do.
However--and this is the difficult part for us to accept--God knows
their choices in advance, as he knows everything.  You will have to
make up your mind as you read the poem whether you find this a
plausible explanation.

What Milton explains here is that God could have made it impossible
for Satan ever to lift his head from the burning lake's surface, but
instead he allowed Satan to follow his own course of action.  Because
Satan chooses to continue the battle through deceit, God has a chance
to shower "infinite goodness, grace, and mercy" on man when Satan has
ruined him.

Satan raises himself from the lake and with Beelzebub begins a flight
to solid ground.  The landscape of Hell looks like the devastation
caused by an earthquake or volcanic eruption.  More important than
its physical appearance is Satan's reaction to the scene.  He doesn't
waste much time bemoaning the horrors of his kingdom.  Hell may be
miserable, but it is Satan's realm, where he is second to no one, not
even God.

In any case, Hell and Heaven are mental states:  "The mind is its own
place, and in itself / Can make a Heaven of Hell, a Hell of Heaven."
This is a familiar psychological truth.  We all know someone who
retains self-confidence and serenity in spite of failure and bad
luck, while others are never happy despite all kinds of advantages.

Satan is beginning to emerge as a complex character.  He has a
rational understanding of his situation, for he certainly brought
about his own Hell.  He is apparently quite determined to think of it
as his own personal Heaven.  It's interesting to think about Satan as
a reverse God, especially when you see him acting responsibly, as he
does now, leading his unhappy followers to the shore.  His physical
stature is impressive:  how do you feel about his moral qualities?
Can evil have aspects of good?

PARADISE LOST: LINES 376-520. THE CATALOG OF FALLEN ANGELS

For the listing of the fallen angels, Milton needs further help from
his muse, the Holy Spirit.  The listing is like a panoramic shot of
the huge forces moving from lake to shore, with faces in the crowd
picked out as Milton comments on them.

While dramatic, the list is also another device of classical epic.
In The Iliad there is a famous catalog of ships, and in The Aeneid
there are catalogs of the armies and their leaders who help Aeneas.
These catalogs make the scale of the epic enormous:  by naming
everyone, the poet gives the impression that anybody who was anybody
was there.

Don't try to follow every name in the catalog of fallen angels.  To
do so will only get you lost in a maze of Old Testament history.
Instead, read parts of the catalog aloud to appreciate how impressive
the names sound.

But you should know why the fist is there.  It shows that Milton had
none of our multicultural appreciation for other religions or other
mythologies beside the Christian one.  In the later history of
mankind, recorded in the Old Testament, the fallen angels become the
false gods who turned the Israelites from the true God.  The list
includes the Egyptian gods and the gods of Greek and Roman mythology,
"the Ionian gods" (line 508), who were also worshipped by people who
Milton thinks ought to have known better.  For him, all other deities
except the Christian God are companions of Satan.

PARADISE LOST: LINES 522-669. SATAN REVIEWS THE FALLEN ANGELS

Satan shows us again just how inspiring a leader he can be.  He first
"gently raised / Their fainting courage and dispelled their fears."
Then he orders a military review with a brass band ("Sonorous metal
blowing marital sounds") and a parade of all the divisions with their
banners flying.

He proudly surveys the numberless army, by the side of which any
other army would look like the pygmies fighting the cranes (line
575).  A group of epic similes stresses the army's size:  it is
greater than the forces on both sides in the Trojan War, greater than
any forces King Arthur or Charlemagne could command.

As he looks at the army (the similes have made it seem a cause for
pride), Satan chokes with tears.  His first few words express his
affection and sympathy for his followers.  How could such a "united
force of gods" be defeated?

He soon talks himself out of weakness as he inspires his followers
with hopes of regaining Heaven.  They can't do it directly, since
they obviously underestimated God's forces before.  Instead he hints
that a new world with beings equal to the angels is about to be
created.  There may be the chance to continue the fight through
guerilla warfare.

The speech is so successful that the fallen angels flourish their
swords and bang them against their shields as they hurl defiance at
Heaven.

PARADISE LOST: LINES 670-798. THE BUILDING OF PANDEMONIUM

NOTE:  We use the word "pandemonium" to mean any kind of confused,
noisy gathering.  Here we see where the word comes from and what it
really means.  It is a house for all devils, "pan" being the Greek
word for "all" and "demon" the Greek for devil.

Summoned by heralds and trumpets, the enormous army surges toward
Pandemonium, which has been designed by Mulciber with materials mined
by Mammon, the god of gold.  Milton reminds us that angels are
creatures with wings by using an epic simile that compares them to
bees assembling outside their hive.  At a signal, they all shrink so
that they can fit into Pandemonium.  They now look like pygmies or
the fairies that appear to drunken peasants on their way home at
night.  The association suggests the deceitful nature of the fallen
angels.

But the leaders of the fallen angels do not shrink.  They are meeting
privately in another part of Pandemonium to decide their strategy.

PARADISE LOST: LINES 1-298. THE DEBATE IN PANDEMONIUM

As suits his position, Satan presides over the debate from a high
throne, "that bad eminence." But the debate is really a setup.  Three
fallen angels (later, the gods who deceive the Israelites into
worshipping them instead of the true God) offer what you might think
are reasonable alternative strategies; but Beelzebub, like a
well-trained staff officer, brings out the plan which we know will be
agreed on, and then Satan takes on the job of carrying it out.

Moloch blusters that open war is preferable to remaining in Hell.  We
can't be worse off than we are, he says.  If God wins again, we will
be put out of our misery:  God will "reduce / To nothing this
essential, happier far / Than miserable to have eternal being." But
it may be impossible even for God to annihilate them because they may
be divine and therefore immortal (lines 99-100).  In that case, they
already know the worst.

Belial is also unsure whether as fallen angels they are immortal, but
he makes a different argument.  If we can be annihilated, why take
the chance?  We might not be because God might not even give us that
relief.  And it is certainly better to have some "intellectual being
/ Those thoughts that wander through eternity" than nothing.  War
against God will not only risk annihilation, it will also hurt their
chances of getting back into God's grace through good behavior (lines
208-213).

Mammon's position is much less subtle than Belial's and more directly
opposed to Moloch's.  Instead of continuing to fight against God, let
us make our kingdom here.  There are plenty of resources, as Mammon
knows because in Book I he mined the materials to build Pandemonium.
Hell could eventually become a place rivaling the magnificence of
Heaven; the torments they now feel will diminish with time.

Do you find any of these arguments convincing?  It's obvious that
Milton despises Belial, who "Counselled ignoble ease and peaceful
sloth." This comment, addressed directly to us, may help us to
understand one of the reasons why Satan seems attractive whether
Milton intended him to or not.  Satan is active.  He doesn't just
accept his fate, he thinks of ways to change it.

The other fallen angels like Moloch's idea best, fearing another
defeat.  But it isn't what the leadership wants.

PARADISE LOST: LINES 299-505. SATAN'S MISSION

Beelzebub, not approving of Mammon's speech or the applause it
receives, quickly dismisses its arguments.  God is not going to let
the fallen angels make a home for themselves in Hell--he designed it
as a punishment, and it will never be otherwise.  On the other hand,
open war is hopeless because God will win again.

What about something easier?  Beelzebub elaborates the rumor of the
creation of man, mentioned briefly by Satan in Book I.  These
creatures are equal to angels--perhaps they were intended to fill the
gap caused by the expulsion of the rebellious one-third--but they
will receive God's special favors.  At least the place should be
investigated, in hopes of finding a weak spot in God's armor, where
he can be annoyed if not defeated.  Some trick may deliver the new
creation into their hands, so that the inhabitants of earth may join
the fallen angels in Hell.

Satan puts the finishing touch on this managed debate by praising
their judgment in adopting the plan he had in mind already.  And then
he raises the essential question:  who is going to be the spy?

Their cowardly silence gives Satan his chance.  He alone will take on
the task of spying on God's new creation.  Such an assignment best
fits a leader, who should be prepared to take on any danger.  A
leader can't accept the honors due his position without also
accepting the hazards.

He stands up and ends the debate right there, knowing very well that
some other fallen angel would try to claim the difficult job, thus
detracting from Satan's glory.  They all bow to him and praise him
for his heroism, prompting an epic simile in which their harmony is
compared to a beam of sun lighting up the evening sky after a storm.

Milton now adds his own comment:  how shameful it is that devils can
agree among themselves but men cannot (lines 496-505).  Milton had
lived through a civil war and all the horrors of revenge when Charles
II reestablished the monarchy.  There were wars in Germany and France
almost continually during his lifetime.  If only mankind would unite
against its common enemy, "hellish foes," and stop destroying each
other!  We can heartily agree, for things are no better three hundred
years after Paradise Lost.

PARADISE LOST: LINES 506-628. LIFE IN HELL

The debate has broken up and its results have been proclaimed
throughout Hell.  The fallen angels are now free to go about their
normal pursuits, while Satan prepares for his journey to the World.

The angels practice sports, race horses and chariots, and conduct
military exercises, even tearing up the soil in their more strenuous
efforts.  Some are musicians, and they manage to produce songs so
beautiful that they "Suspended Hell and took with ravishment / The
thronged audience." Milton was a musician and his father a composer;
music could never be evil to him.

One group of fallen angels acts like classical philosophers (lines
555-569), arguing and disputing with eloquence about Providence,
Foreknowledge, Will, and Fate--the subjects of Paradise Lost itself.
But they are false philosophers who do not know the truth of the
Christian religion.  They can offer only solace and patience with
their "pleasing sorcery."

Another group explores the rest of Hell.  We are in classical
territory here, and Milton exploits it fully.  Both The Odyssey and
The Aeneid include a visit to the underworld, where we find the same
features--the four rivers of Hell, fire, ice, the torments of the
damned, who suffer for their sins in life.

PARADISE LOST: LINES 629-725. SIN AND DEATH

Meanwhile Satan is off to the gates of Hell, through which he must
pass before he can break through--literally erupt--into Chaos and
then the World.  An epic simile tells us that as he travels, he looks
like a sailing ship so far away that it seems to be hanging in the
clouds.

He soon reaches the nine gates of Hell--three brass, three iron, and
three of the hardest known rock, adamant.  All three gates burn
continually but are never destroyed.  They are guarded by two
horrible creatures, one on each side of the gates:  one is a woman,
Sin, who is a serpent below the waist; the other is a man, Death,
with no shape but blackness.  He carries a dagger and seems to be
wearing a crown.

NOTE:  ALLEGORY AND ALLEGORICAL FIGURES These figures have a
different function in the poem than the characters we already know.
Sin and Death are figures of allegory, which means that they
represent in their appearance the parts they play in our lives.  Sin
is foul and misshapen, only half human, filthy with hybrid offspring
who crawl in and out of her womb as they wish.  She represents the
unnatural confusion of sin, which distorts the proper order of
things.  Death is a black shadow, with a dagger to pierce his victims
and a crown which symbolizes his rule over everyone.  As we follow
the interactions between Sin, Death, and Satan, you will be able to
translate what they do into its meaning.

Death strides toward Satan, who stands his ground:  he fears nothing
in the universe except God and his Son.  (When Satan looks Death in
the eye, we are seeing allegory at work:  Satan is immortal, and
therefore he can defy Death.) He declares his intention to pass
through the nine gates, but Death won't let him.  As they stand ready
to fight, Satan looks like a comet in the sky, and the threatening
combatants look like the thunderclouds just before a storm.  The
fight never happens because Sin rushes between the two of them.

PARADISE LOST: LINES 724-870. THE BIRTH OF SIN AND DEATH

Sin prevents the fight by calling Satan "father"--as surprising to
him as it is to us.  She was born from Satan's head, just as in Greek
mythology the goddess of wisdom, Athena, emerged from Zeus's head.
But Sin came out of the left side of Satan's head.  The left is
connected with evil, and that's why we have the word "sinister,"
which simply means "left."

She emerged precisely at the time Satan initiated the war against
God.  The meaning of the allegory is that Sin was born at the same
moment as rebellion against God's authority.

Once born, Sin became Satan's concubine in a vile incestuous
relationship.  As Satan fell, she too was expelled from Heaven, but
she was given the key to the Hell gates.  While watching the gates,
she gave birth to Death, a labor so difficult that it distorted her
body into the shape of a serpent.  Death immediately turned on his
mother and raped her, causing the birth of monsters who continually
torment her with their gnawing inside her body.  She knows that Death
would like to consume her but cannot do it.

So both Sin and Death are the offspring of Satan, an allegorical way
of saying that Satan is responsible for the introduction of sin and
death into the world, just as Milton said in the third line of Book
I.

Wanting to be let out of the gates, Satan promises Sin and Death that
he will take them back with him to earth after he has spied on it.
Death smiles a ghastly smile as he thinks of more victims.  Sin shows
her nature by persuading herself that it is perfectly all right to
disobey God, because her own father has asked her to unlock the
gates.  Sin can always find justification--as we know from our own
experience.

PARADISE LOST: LINES 871-1009. CHAOS AND OLD NIGHT

Sin opens the gates, which can never again be shut (lines 883-884).
The gates are wide enough to let an army, chariots and all, pass
easily.  They open on the realm of Chaos.  Think of it as the first
few moments after the Big Bang, when there is nothing but a soup of
uncombined electrons and neutrons.  Here "hot, cold, moist, and dry,"
the four elements in medieval science, contend in confusion.  The
prospect is so terrifying that even Satan pauses before launching
himself out of the gates.

When he finally jumps into Chaos, he is swept first down and then up
because the region is so chaotic that it is land, sea, and air, by
turns and all at once.  In three and a half lines composed almost
entirely of monosyllables we get a vivid impression of confused and
constant change:

So eagerly the fiend
Over bog, or steep, through the strait, rough, dense, or rare,
With head, hands, wings, or feet pursues his way,
And swims or sinks, or wades, or creeps, or flies

After a prolonged struggle, he follows a "universal hubbub wild" to
the place where King Chaos and his companion, Old Night, sit with
their followers, who are all allegorical figures like Sin and Death.
Note that Chance is one of these figures.  Chance has no place in the
ordered universe ruled by God--chance is chaotic by nature.

Satan asks Chaos and Old Night for directions to the World.  He
points out that if he reaches the earth and is successful in ruining
it, Chaos will gain because he will have more territory.  It is an
argument Chaos is glad to hear; he grumbles that too much has been
taken from him recently.  He lost territory when God created Hell out
of a corner of Chaos and then lost more when God created the World.
It can be seen hanging on a golden chain from Heaven down into Chaos.
But the World isn't far away now, so Chaos wishes Satan luck.  They
have the same aims.

PARADISE LOST: LINES 1010-1055. FIRST SIGHT OF THE WORLD

Satan plunges back into Chaos, again fighting his way through the
confused elements.  Milton tells us that later there will be a smooth
road from Hell to earth, built by Sin and Death.  It will follow
Satan to the World and make a direct pathway for the devils to reach
and corrupt man.  You can easily see the allegorical meaning here.

As Satan comes to the edge of Chaos, day begins to dawn, causing Old
Night to retreat so that his journey becomes easier.  As he floats on
the calmer air, Satan looks upward:  there is Heaven, where he
formerly lived, and hanging just below, the globe of the World.

NOTE:  MILTON'S COSMOLOGY The World is not the earth, but the
universe.  in this imaginary cosmos of Milton's, we should forget our
Copernican model of the universe.  This is a schematic universe,
where the component parts are placed in symbolic relationship to each
other.  Heaven is at the top, with unlimited extension upward.  Hell,
at the bottom, is Heaven's counterpart--it is unlimited downward.
The space between is filled with Chaos.  The World hangs suspended
from Heaven, with a stairway leading down to an opening in the top of
the sphere.  inside the sphere are ten concentric circles, with the
earth in the middle.  The sun and the planets revolve around the
earth.  The outside of the World is like a hard rind, which protects
the World from the buffeting winds of Chaos.

Don't be too impatient with what may seem to you a ridiculous model
of the cosmos.  Milton knew about the Copernican universe (the
archangel Raphael refers to it in Book VIII).  Ask yourself why
Milton might have wanted to retain the classical and medieval
cosmology, with the earth at the center, for the purposes of his
poem.

Reflect that science fiction also does not represent the universe as
twentieth-century physicists and astronomers describe it.  Think of
those imaginary worlds where starships land to find robots.  Like
Milton, science fiction writers invent a background to fit what they
want to say.  They freely give planets atmospheres with or without
important ingredients and put them in space at distances and in
places where they need them for their plots.  The important question
for them and for Milton is whether the interactions which take place
in these settings are believable and interesting to us.

PARADISE LOST: BOOK III

The scene now shifts to Heaven, where for the first time we see God,
his Son, and the angels.  Book III is almost a point-for-point
contrast with the two preceding books.  All is light here, as all was
darkness in Hell.  In Heaven there is a council, as there was in
Hell, but it is characterized by harmony and expressions of love.
Just as Satan undertook the task of spying on man, so the Son takes
on the burden of dying to redeem mankind.

Contrast this introduction to Heaven with Book I's description of
Satan in Hell.  You may find that God and his Son lack the
characteristics--human failings--which make the fallen angels
interesting.  In Satan, God has a hard act to follow, and Milton
hasn't given him much help.  It's quite difficult to think of ways in
which absolute authority could be given a human face, especially when
by definition God's choices cannot be understood by man.

The poetry of the scenes in Heaven has a different texture.  There
aren't many epic similes or classical allusions in this book (which
is one-third shorter than Book II).  Most of the classical references
are found in the first part, where Milton speaks of himself, and the
last, where Satan continues his journey and lands on the sun.  God
and his Son converse in quite straight-forward statements; whether
you agree with God or not, you can follow his argument quite easily.

NOTE:  THE CHRISTIAN TRINITY In Christian theology, God has a mystic
three-in-one, one-in-three unity.  The Godhead has three aspects:
God the Father is the original authority, while God the Son has a
special affinity for mankind, since he himself became man to redeem
Adam's sin.  God the Holy Spirit is not mentioned until Book XII,
when his coming is foretold.  But you will remember that Milton
prayed to the Holy Spirit after the first invocation.

The threefold nature of the Christian God separates him from the
Hebrew deity, who has only one aspect.  The Holy Trinity is a
difficult concept to grasp, not least because, although the Son and
the Holy Spirit are revealed later in time, they have existed as part
of God from the beginning.  They are therefore present at the
creation of everything, including the angels.

PARADISE LOST: LINES 1-55. THE INVOCATION TO LIGHT

Milton went blind in his forties.  He married his second and third
wives without seeing them.  The whole of Paradise Lost--like Paradise
Regained and Samson Agonistes, the great works of Milton's
maturity--was dictated to secretaries and to his daughters, who did
not like the chore.  Most of the poem was composed in the early hours
of the morning, for Milton was an early riser.  He waited impatiently
for his secretary to arrive--like a cow waiting to be milked, he
would say.

His anguish about his blindness is clearly expressed in the
invocation to light.  Book III is full of light, so he invokes its
aid as God's first creation.  But light cannot enter his eyes.  Being
blind does not prevent his enjoying classical poetry or the Hebrew
Old Testament.  Homer and other Greek poets were also blind.  But the
sense of regret is poignant:

ever-enduring dark
Surrounds me, from the cheerful ways of men
Cut off, and for the Book of Knowledge fair
Presented with a universal blank
Of Nature's works to me expunged and razed,
And wisdom at one entrance quite shut out.
(45-50)

So light must shine inside his mind, communicating what is after all
invisible to all men.

PARADISE LOST: LINES 56-134. GOD'S EXPLANATION OF FREE

God the Father is seated on his throne in Heaven, with his Son by his
side, looking down through the gate of Heaven, past the stairs, on
Adam and Eve in Paradise and on Satan flying toward the suspended
World.  As he points out Satan to his Son, God describes what is
going to happen:  Satan will deceive Adam and Eve, who will listen to
him and disobey God.

It is difficult to like what God says.  He calls man an
ungrateful--"ingrate"--for his good fortune:  "he had of me / All he
could have." The contradiction between man's free will and God's
omnipotence is easy to understand but hard to accept.  God knows
everything that is to happen and controls it all, but man is free, If
he were not, then he could not choose and earn praise or blame.

NOTE:  THE DOCTRINE OF FREE WILL Free will isn't a dead issue.  It's
hotly debated in political science and philosophy classes.  How free
are you to do what you want?  Are your actions under the control of
your free will or is that your perception only?  Milton thinks that
man experiences his choices as free, even though God knows what the
results will be.  Because man does not know what God knows, man has
the sense of complete freedom.  Is it possible that this is a
metaphorical way of describing our dependence on our context and
heritage?  We may not believe that God determines our actions, but a
large part of them are controlled by genes, family history, economic
circumstances, and environment--matters which, like God, are beyond
our individual control.

God continues his explanation to the Son by saying:  "Foreknowledge
had no influence on their fault." Man is therefore responsible for
his fall, but not as responsible as Satan and his followers.  Because
they fell "self-tempted, self-depraved," they will receive no mercy,
but man will find grace and mercy, to God's glory.

PARADISE LOST: LINES 135-415. THE HEAVENLY COUNCIL

In contrast to the stench and darkness of Hell, Heaven is full of
"ambrosial fragrance" and love shines on the face of the Son.  He
asks what God intends to do with man:  will Satan take the new
creation down to Hell with him, or will God abolish it entirely?

God answers that he will offer mankind grace in the form of prayer,
which he will hear gladly:  "Mine ear shall not be slow, mine eye not
shut." He will also give mankind a conscience to guide them.

But man will die eternally unless his mortal crime is atoned for by a
heavenly being willing to die for him.  Who in the heavenly host will
become man and die a mortal death to redeem mankind?

There is the same silence in Heaven as there was in Hell when a
parallel question was raised.  Finally the Son offers himself as
sacrifice.  His faith in his Father is so strong that he knows God
will not abandon him, but will allow him to kill Death himself:
"Death his death's wound shall then receive." He predicts the
glorious moment when he will return from deaning out Hell to the "Joy
entire" of God's presence.

The parallel between the Son and Satan will be drawn again,
especially when we find out later what caused Satan's rebellion.
Satan and the Son are two brothers--one good, one evil--fighting for
their Father's attention.

God greets the Son's courageous offer with an outpouring of praise.
The Son will become man in a virgin birth, mystically combining his
nature as man (Adam's son) with his nature as God.  Because the Son
humbles himself to join mankind as one of them, he will unite in
himself the qualities of man and God and become worthy to judge all
creation.  His sacrifice is so glorious that it will bring about "New
heaven and earth, wherein the just shall dwell." God turns to the
angels and commands them to worship the Son as his equal.

The angels sing a song which praises God in terms of light so radiant
that even the angels must shade their eyes with their wings when they
see it (line 382).  Then they sing praises to the Son, the warrior
who defeated the rebel angels and now the redeemer who had "offered
himself to die / For man's offence." The passage ends with the poet's
vow to praise the son endlessly as God's equal.

PARADISE LOST: LINES 416-497. SATAN IN LIMBO

Meanwhile, Satan lands on the outer rim of the World, suspended on
its golden chain from Heaven.  He manages to find a spot where he is
to some extent sheltered from the winds of Chaos, like a vulture who
rests for a while on the windy plains of Mongolia, on his way to
steal lambs for his prey.  Notice how the epic simile makes a kind of
double image:  you see the ugly bird and Satan superimposed on one
another, sharing the same characteristics.

There is nothing where Satan is walking up and down "alone bent on
his prey." Later in the history of the World, Milton tells us, this
place on the perimeter of the World will become Limbo.  Here will be
found the souls of those who are more misguided than sinful, who
can't be sent to Hell but aren't good enough to enter Heaven.  They
will include the builders of the Tower of Babel and the Greek
Philosophers who wanted to become gods.  Milton especially mentions
those Roman Catholics who believed that putting on religious garments
would get them into Heaven.

NOTE:  MILTON'S CHRISTIAN INDIVIDUALISM England had become a
Protestant nation in 1539, not for purely religious reasons but
because King Henry VIII wanted to divorce his first wife and the
Roman Catholic Church opposed divorce, as it still does.  So Henry
declared a Church of England, with himself as head.

The main difference between Roman Catholicism and Protestantism comes
in the matter of access to God.  The Roman Catholic Church believes
in the need for intercession with God, through a priesthood specially
trained to act as intermediary for the people.  Protestants believe
they can address God directly through prayer.  Their clergy, who are
permitted to marry, are counselors and advisors more than
intercessors with God.

As Protestantism developed, groups arose believing that even the
reduced priestly function of the Church of England was too much.  The
extreme is probably the Quakers, who have no priests at all.  Milton
was closest to being a Puritan, but his kind of Christianity is
really unique to him.  We can best describe him as a Christian
individualist.  He believed that he should obey only God and God's
law, which was immediately obvious to anyone who believed with a pure
heart.  Milton had no use at all for the external shows of
religion--even symbols like the cross.

Thus you can see why he despises Roman Catholic "Indulgences,
Dispenses, Pardons, Bulls." All those who believed in them would be
blown away from Heaven and whirled into Limbo, the Paradise of Fools.

PARADISE LOST: LINES 498-629. SATAN ON THE SUN

Leaving Limbo, Satan comes to the opening in the top of the World
where he can look down into the concentric circles and up the stairs
to Heaven.  He stands in amazement looking down into the World, like
a soldier on military reconnaissance who finds himself suddenly
looking down on a new land or a magnificent city.

He throws himself down into the World and passes through the circle
of the stars to land on the sun.  The place is "beyond expression
bright," brighter than jewels or the philosophers' stone which was
said to turn any metal into gold.  There are of course no shadows on
the sun, so Satan easily sees an angel standing there with his back
to him.

PARADISE LOST: LINES 630-742. THE DECEPTION OF THE ANGEL URIEL

Satan is always daring and always deceitful.  It seems no problem for
him to change himself into a young angel or cherub with curling hair,
gold-sprinkled wings, and a wand in his hand.  He approaches the
angel, who proves to be Uriel, one of the seven around God's throne,
and addresses him.

Satan gives the flimsiest excuse for his presence:  he has a great
desire to see God's new creation, man, so much talked of in Heaven.
Will Uriel kindly point out on which of the circling spheres Man is
to be found?

Uriel suspects nothing.  In fact, Milton tells us that only God can
know the truth hidden by hypocrisy; not even angels can penetrate a
lying appearance, especially when they are so good that suspicion is
not part of their nature.  Uriel praises the little cherub for his
desire to see God's works and tells him with pride that he was
present when the World was made.  The globe down there at the center,
the one half lit by the sun and half by the moon reflecting the sun's
light, is earth.  Uriel even points his finger directly at Paradise
and tells Satan that he can't miss the way.

Satan bows respectfully, as a cherub would to a senior angel, and
swoops down from the sun to the earth, landing on the top of
Niphates, a mountain in the Armenian Taurus range.

PARADISE LOST: BOOK IV

We find another change of scene and new characters in Book IV:  the
action takes place in Paradise.  We meet not only Adam and Eve but
the good angels who remained faithful to God and now guard Paradise.
The action, which occupies an evening and night, moves dramatically
from scenes in which Adam unwittingly tells Satan what he wants to
know to a confrontation between Satan and his former companions; it
also includes Adam and Eve's pleasure in their sexual union.

PARADISE LOST: LINES 1-130. SATAN'S REMORSE

The opening lines are a cry of regret:  if only Adam and Eve had been
warned now of what is about to happen!  For Satan is on earth,
looking at the Garden of Eden, of which Paradise is a part.  Satan
brings Hell with him wherever he goes--which you will easily
understand in modern psychological terms as a continual state of
tension and dissatisfaction:  Satan is always full of revenge,
remorse, and envy.

As he looks up at the sun, whose brilliance reminds him of his former
glory in Heaven, he regrets his disobedience, for after all God's
service is not hard.  But ambition would always bring about his ruin
because he would freely make the same choice.  So nothing is left but
Hell, for to repent would mean submitting to God.  Not only would his
pride prevent that, it also wouldn't last very long.  The only hope
is to divide possession of man with God, "more than half perhaps will
reign."

Unknown to him, Uriel has been watching the little cherub who spoke
so courteously to him.  As the "cherub's" face contorts with anguish,
Uriel realizes who he is.

131-287. EDEN AND PARADISE

Paradise is a garden in a corner of Eden, surrounded by fruit trees.
As Satan approaches, he smells the delicious scent of the trees.  One
epic simile compares the perfume to the spicy odors which sailors
smell off the coast of Arabia; a second contrasts it with the smell
of burning fish which drove away the devil Asmodeus in a Hebrew
fable.

Satan isn't deterred by the tangle of bushes and undergrowth that
guards Paradise.  He simply leaps over into the garden, his entrance
celebrated in two more epic similes:  Satan is like a wolf preying on
sheep and like a burglar breaking in through a window.  Once inside
the garden, he perches on the Tree of Life in the shape of a
cormorant.

He has chosen a good spot to survey Paradise, which lies open before
him.  It is watered by a river which runs south through Eden and
comes up in Paradise as a fountain, then pours out again into four
rivers.  Next to Satan's perch is the Tree of Knowledge.  In front of
him are all the delights of Paradise:  flowers, fruit, grazing
animals, waterfalls, singing birds.  Everything is so perfect that
roses don't even have thorns.  No garden famous in classical myth can
compare with this "Assyrian garden" (Eden and Paradise were located
in Mesopotamia).  Satan glowers on this perfection, for he "Saw
undelighted all delight."

PARADISE LOST: LINES 288-410. SATAN SEES ADAM AND EVE

We first see Adam and Eve through Satan's eyes.  They walk naked and
majestic through the Garden, exemplifying the order and harmony of
God's creation.  They are not equal, for Eve is subordinate to Adam
and wears her hair longer, curling like tendrils of a vine that needs
a tree for support.

The relationship between Adam and Eve is one of the most difficult
ideas in Paradise Lost for us to accept.  Adam is Eve's God:  "He for
God only, she for God in him:  / His fair large front and eye sublime
declared / Absolute rule." Christian marriage for Milton was not a
partnership of equals but a harmonious hierarchy in which man and
woman have different roles.  Keep this in mind as the story unfolds,
for Eve's sin is that she takes over leadership from Adam and Adam's
sin is that he lets her do it.

Adam and Eve sit down to a vegetarian supper, watching the animals
who play for their delight.  Even the elephant gambols, though a bit
ponderously.

Satan, watching from the Tree of Life, is consumed with envy.  He
comforts himself with the thought of dragging mankind away from
Paradise to Hell.  "There will be room / Not like these narrow
limits, to receive / Your numerous offspring."

But don't blame me, Satan says.  Blame God who made me seek revenge.
Here you'll probably think of those people you know who always find
someone or something else responsible for their actions, never
themselves.

Satan now assumes the shape of different animals, getting closer and
closer to Adam and Eve until he can hear their conversation.

PARADISE LOST: LINES 411-775. EVENING IN PARADISE

In Adam's first speech, he mentions God's prohibition against eating
the fruit of the Tree of Knowledge.  He doesn't know what Death is
because (as you remember from Book II) Death is coming behind Satan
and has not yet reached earth.  Eve recounts the story of her birth
from Adam's rib, acknowledging "How beauty is excelled by manly grace
/ And wisdom, which alone is truly fair." They embrace, making Satan
furious with envy.  He can only feel desire, never satisfaction--and
his unsatisfied desire is the Hell he carries with him.  Satan has
gained an important piece of information from his eavesdropping:  he
can corrupt man through the Tree of Knowledge.  He voices the
question that has probably already occurred to you:  is man's
happiness dependent on ignorance?  As twentieth-century readers,
we're Likely to be scornful of a theology which seems to reward
ignorance.  But perhaps some kinds of knowledge are best left
unknown:  would man be happier if physicists had not used their
knowledge to Construct a nuclear bomb?

A plan to inflame Adam and Eve's desire for knowledge begins to form
in Satan's mind as he moves off to look for an angel who might tell
him more.

The setting sun suddenly illumines the eastern gate of Paradise (the
only legitimate entrance), where the angel Gabriel is on guard
between pillars of alabaster and rock.  Uriel slides down a sunbeam
and quickly warns Gabriel that one of the "banished crew" has
deceived him and entered Paradise.  Gabriel replies that nothing has
entered through the gate, but he can't be sure that a spirit hasn't
leapt over the surrounding hedge.  However, if Satan is in the
garden, Gabriel will know by morning.

Evening comes on, the nightingale begins to sing, and Adam suggests
to Eve that they go early to bed in order to rest for their gardening
chores.  Eve reiterates her submission--"God is thy law, thou
mine"--and asks Adam to explain why the stars and moon shine
throughout the night when nothing can see them.

They prevent the world from reverting to the reign of Night, Adam
explains, and they give light to millions of nocturnal spirits, who
praise God continually.  Talking together, Adam and Eve walk hand in
hand to a flowery shelter, their marriage bed.  In an epic simile,
Eve is described as more lovely than Pandora, who in classical myth
opened a box which brought sin and trouble to mankind.  By now you're
probably wondering what Milton has against women:  for him, their
beauty is certainly not an unmixed blessing.

Adam and Eve make their evening prayer to God who has blessed them
with perfection.  They go to bed in each other's arms, as Milton
praises "wedded love." To enjoy its sensual pleasures is to obey
God's law.  True love is found in the sexual embraces of married
lovers, not "in the bought smile / Of harlots, loveless, joyless,
unendeared."

PARADISE LOST: LINES 776-1015. GABRIEL CONFRONTS SATAN

The angelic guards are posted to watch for the intruder.  Ithuriel
and Zephon are given the job of searching the bower where Adam and
Eve are asleep.

They find Satan almost at once, squatting in the shape of a toad by
Eve's ear.  As soon as Ithuriel touches him with his spear, Satan
springs up in his own shape.  The transformation looks like an
explosion, as the epic simile tells you.

Now we have come to one of the most dramatic passages in Paradise
Lost.  To get its full flavor, read it like a play, assigning roles
to different speakers.  Milton's skill in writing lines of blank
verse is at its best here.

At first the two angels don't recognize Satan, causing him to reply
scornfully "Know ye not me?" You must be really low in the heavenly
pecking order not to recognize me.

Zephon answers scorn with scorn:  you don't look like a glorious
angel now, you look like a creature from Hell.  The rebuke stings
Satan:  he "felt how awful goodness is" (using "awful" in the sense
of awe-inspiring).

When they bring Satan to where Gabriel has just met the other guards,
Gabriel asks him why he has left Hell to make mischief in Paradise.
Satan thinks it's a silly question--who wouldn't try to leave Hell?
Yes, he was there beside Eve who was asleep, but that doesn't mean
anything.  Gabriel answers sarcastically that Heaven lost a good
judge of wisdom when it lost Satan, and that his smartness will get
him sent back to Hell to learn better.  Why is Satan alone?  Gabriel
asks.

Satan gets angry and calls his former comrade "Insulting Angel," and
he boasts of his leadership in taking on the dangerous spying
mission.  He scoffs at the "gay legions" in Heaven who take the easy
way and cringe before God instead of fighting against his tyranny.

Gabriel objects to Satan's using the word "faithful" of himself and
his actions.  Gabriel even accuses him of having flattered God with
his fawning and cringing, hoping to take over God's throne.  When
finally he gets down to business, he threatens Satan that he will
drag him in chains back to Hell and seal it over, if he finds him in
Paradise again.  Satan has the last word, defying Gabriel to capture
him without another War in Heaven.

At this the angels surrounding Satan turn bright red and tighten
their circle around him.  There are so many of them and they stand so
upright that their spears look like a field of wheat waiting to be
cut.  For his part, Satan draws himself up so that he looks like a
mountain whose top reaches the sky.  His helmet is proudly crested,
and he seems to carry powerful weapons.  It is a tense moment:  will
another war break out to tear apart not only Paradise but Heaven
itself?

God doesn't want it to happen.  He sends a miraculous sign from
Heaven, holding in the sky the astrological sign Libra, the Balance,
which God had used during the creation to equalize earth and air.  In
one side of the balance God places the consequences of leaving the
place quietly; in the other, the consequences of fighting.  Fighting
proves lighter, which means less sensible:  "The latter quick flew up
and kicked the beam."

Look, Gabriel says, God doesn't want another fight.  Neither of them
can do what God denies, although the sign clearly shows that Satan is
a lightweight compared to Gabriel.  Satan leaves hastily, as the
night gives way to dawn.

PARADISE LOST: LINES 1-219. MORNING IN PARADISE

Adam awakes, surprised to find that Eve is still asleep.  After he
wakes her gently, she tells him the dream which we know was put into
her mind by the toad--Satan--who squatted by her head during the
night.

Eve's dream foretells exactly what will happen.  In it she hears a
voice she thinks is Adam's, calling her to enjoy the night by walking
to the Tree of Knowledge.  There she meets an angel who plucks fruit
from the Tree, using the argument that knowledge should not be
forbidden to man.  He offers Eve the fruit, promising that it will
make her into a goddess.  The fruit is so marvelously appetizing that
she tastes it, and immediately she is given knowledge of the earth by
seeing it from the clouds, as a goddess would.  The dream ends as the
guide disappears and Eve finds herself back in Paradise, asleep.

Although Adam comforts her, he is puzzled by the work of evil in a
being who is "Created pure." Then he explains how dreams happen.  His
explanation is the first of what you may think of as the lectures of
Book V.  These lectures are Milton's version of the psychology and
cosmology underlying Paradise Lost.  You will be surprised at the
variety of thinking in these lectures.  The explanation of dreams,
for example, is not far from current theory.  But the hierarchy by
which all lower things, even the planets, feed the higher ones, will
strike you as medieval.

The explanation of dreams is not unlike one you may have heard, once
you change a few terms.  For Milton, Reason is the chief mental
faculty, assisted by Fancy (imagination), which works on the input
given by the senses.  When we sleep, Fancy escapes from the control
of Reason and produces "Wild work," with actions and ideas jumbled
and mismatched.  You may recognize similarities in this explanation
to the Freudian scheme in which the unconscious expresses desires in
dreams, when it escapes from the restraining influence of the waking
consciousness.

Milton says that the past becomes present in dreams, a fact which
makes Adam think that Eve's dream was caused by their evening
discussion of the Tree of Knowledge.  Of course we know better:  we
know as Adam doesn't that Satan put the dream in Eve's head.  Adam
hopes (but not with complete confidence) that she would never do what
she had dreamed.  This irony is a little heavy-handed, you may think.

Adam kisses away Eve's tears, and they go out to make their morning
prayer, which consists of requests that all parts of the universe
will join with them in praising God.  Then they begin their gardening
chores.

PARADISE LOST: LINES 219-307. GOD SENDS RAPHAEL TO VISIT ADAM AND EVE

God sends Raphael down to warn Adam and Eve about the threat posed by
Satan.  Raphael is to make it clear to Adam that his fate is in his
own hands because his will is free.  But it is only fair to warn him,
so that he cannot claim he is "unadmonished, unforewarned."

As Raphael flies to the gate of heaven and looks down on the earth
below, Milton seizes the opportunity to mention Galileo again.  But
Galileo's knowledge of what he sees through his telescope is "less
assured" than Raphael's, for Galileo is only human.

Raphael seems like a Phoenix as he flies down and lands on the
eastern edge of the garden.  The description will remind you of the
figure of Mercury, which you can see on advertisements for flower
delivery services, when Raphael folds his three pairs of wings, one
pair attached to his heels.  He walks majestically through the ranks
of the angels guarding Paradise, then through a grove of spice trees
perfuming the air.  Adam sees Raphael coming as he sits waiting for
Eve to prepare another vegetarian meal.

PARADISE LOST: LINES 308-450. ADAM AND EVE ENTERTAIN RAPHAEL

Adam calls to Eve to prepare a special meal with the best food and
drink.  Raphael approaches alone with great dignity, and here Milton
makes a comment aside to the reader:  he contrasts Raphael's
composure with the "tedious pomp that waits / On Princes." A few
years before Paradise Lost was written, King Charles II had entered
London with great processions and parades.  Since Milton had opposed
the restoration of the monarchy, he was inclined to speak sourly of
royal display.

Raphael, Adam, and Eve gather round a "grassy turf" to eat what seems
to be a sumptuous picnic.  Milton adds a domestic note:  when you eat
fruit and drink juice, there is "No fear lest dinner cool."

Raphael delivers another of Book V's lectures, this time on the
universal need for nourishment.  There is a vertical order which
causes all lower things to become food for higher ones.  Even the
elements of earth, air, fire, and water feed the moon, which then
sends out nourishment to the higher planets.  In return for giving
light to evening, the sun sucks up the humidity which rises.  Saying
that the food on earth compares well to that available in heaven,
Raphael eats enthusiastically and digests his food as other creatures
do, thus demonstrating that angels have a bodily existence.

PARADISE LOST: LINES 451-561. AFTER-DINNER CONVERSATION IN PARADISE

Seeing that Raphael has enjoyed his dinner, Adam leads the
conversation into a comparison of life in Heaven and on earth.
Raphael, the celestial school-teacher, provides information on the
natural order.  Everything begins the same, then becomes more refined
as it approaches God.  Even the flowers are more spiritual than the
roots of a plant.  When man eats the fruits, the nourishment produces
the "vital spirits," life, sense, fancy, and understanding, which
make the soul reasonable.  Reason is the ruling faculty for both men
and angels, but angels have "intuitive" reason (line 488), which
means they understand at once, while man has "discursive" reason:  he
has to work things out logically.  The food Raphael eats on earth is
of the same kind as that in Heaven, but less refined because of its
greater distance from God.

However--and there's irony in this--if Adam and Eve "be found
obedient," they will probably become angels too and understand more
than their human reason presently allows them.

Adam notices the fatal phrase and asks innocently how they can
disobey a God who has been so good to them.  Raphael offers another
lecture, this one on the free will given to man by God.  You'll
recognize the main ideas from God's explanation of free will in Book
III.  God has given man and angels free will so that they can
demonstrate their obedience:  "freely we serve / Because we freely
love." But already some have disobeyed and fallen into Hell.

Naturally Adam wants to know the whole story, since until this time
he hadn't understood his situation or any of the history of the War
in Heaven and his subsequent creation.

PARADISE LOST: LINES 561-656. RAPHAEL'S STORY.

You have now come to the point in the narrative where the story turns
back to the events which came before those of the first book.
Raphael is about to tell Adam and Eve how the War in Heaven happened
and what were its consequences.  The story will take up the rest of
Book V and the whole of Books VI, VII, and VIII.  (We return to the
present in Book IX.)

This story-within-a-story technique is easy enough for us to follow
because we're familiar with it from movies and TV drama.  But you
should note that it's another device Milton uses to put himself in
the great epic tradition.  In Virgil's Aeneid, Aeneas the hero
relates the fall of Troy; in The Odyssey, Odysseus tells King
Alcinous his adventures during the ten years since he left Troy.

Raphael takes his listeners, Adam and Eve, back to a time when "this
world was not, and Chaos wild / Reigned where these Heavens now
roll." (Remember that in Book II King Chaos complained he had lost
part of his territory when God scooped up a piece of Chaos to make
the World.) At this time the Heavens are about to celebrate the Great
Year, which, according to the Greek philosopher Plato, comes every
36,000 years.  (It takes that number of years for all the heavenly
spheres to complete all their revolutions.) God is going to mark this
Great Year with a special proclamation:  his Son is equal with
himself.  He calls his Son "anointed," which is the meaning of the
Hebrew word "Messiah."

The announcement causes great rejoicing in Heaven, with music,
dancing, and feasting "with Angels' food." Finally all the hosts of
angels retire to sleep in their tents, while some remain awake
singing hymns of praise all night long.

PARADISE LOST: LINES 657-802. SATAN ASSEMBLES HIS FORCES

Satan is also awake, but he isn't singing praises.  He is stung with
envy and hatred because another angel--not him--has been declared
coequal with God.  He is plotting how to strike back.

It isn't hard to identify with Satan's feelings.  In fact, it's
really more difficult to understand why God so abruptly elevated the
Son, without explanation to Lucifer, as Satan was known in Heaven.
We are given no reasons for God's preference.  But that is part of
what Milton wants us to understand about his God:  we all must accept
with obedience and grace whatever he decides.

Lucifer can't accept it.  He feels like a child rejected in favor of
another sibling.  You may perhaps be familiar with another evil
figure, Iago in Shakespeare's Othello.  Iago's only motivation for
the terrible destruction he brings about is that Othello promoted
someone else instead of him.  In Iago's case, like Lucifer's, the
fury seems out of all proportion to the apparent cause.

Lucifer was "of the first / If not the first Archangel." Now he will
be the first in opposition to God's will.  He whispers to his closest
companions a command to bring their forces to the North, the region
traditionally connected with Satan.  They will gather there to
prepare a special welcome for the Son, he says.

But God is not deceived.  As one-third of the angels follow Lucifer
(now Satan), God warns his Son that a great battle is coming.  The
Son--in sharp contrast to Satan--never argues or contradicts his
Father but assures him he will be equal to the challenge.

So, Raphael continues (using Adam's name in line 751 to remind us
that we're following a story within a story), Satan took his
numberless army to the North, where he set up a palace in imitation
of the Mount of God.  Satan addresses his followers, using the great
line naming all the orders of angels:  "Thrones, Dominations,
Princedoms, Virtues, Powers." These impressive titles may not mean
much now that the Son has usurped "All Power." How can we get free of
their power, which was bad enough with one supreme authority and is
unendurable now that God is double?  His argument is based on the
meaning of "peer," which means an equal.  (Peers in a kingdom are
those people equal to the king in political importance.) Satan's
equality with God has been violated.

PARADISE LOST: LINES 803-907. THE LOYAL ANGEL

One angel interrupts indignantly.  Abdiel cannot bear to hear God
blasphemed as a tyrant.  Who is Satan to dispute God about liberty?
Because God has elevated one of the angels to become his coequal, he
has honored all of them.  Better to seek forgiveness while there is
some chance of getting it.

Satan scorns the suggestion that the Son had anything to do with
Satan's origins--as he must have if he is God.  (You will remember
from the note on the Christian Trinity that all three parts of God
exist from the beginning, and therefore the Son, as part of God, must
have created the angels, Lucifer among them.) "We know no time when
we were not as now." Angels are "self-begot, self-raised," and
therefore they owe their origin to no one else.  Abdiel is told to
take this defiance back to God before anything worse happens.

Abdiel seems like the good guy who stands up to the gang leaders.  He
knows what's right and will not put up with anything illegal.  You
can admire his courage when you think of someone being surrounded by
an armed crowd of ruthless bullies.

Milton probably thought of himself as Abdiel, the lonely defender of
the truth.  Even during the republic, when the Puritans held power,
he was an individualist whose views were regarded as extreme.  When
he wrote Paradise Lost, he felt utterly isolated among the Royalists
who came in with King Charles II and restored not only the monarchy
but religious ceremonies that Milton despised.  "Among the faithless,
faithful only he":  this comes from Milton's heart.

PARADISE LOST: BOOK VI

This is the Star Wars book of Paradise Lost.  It's the War in Heaven,
with two armies of angels battling each other on the ground and above
it.  Telling this story presents the same technical challenges as
recounting an outer-space battle in modern science fiction.

The background is entirely imaginary and not entirely clear.  (See if
you can draw a picture of Heaven from the description given in this
book.) An imaginary setting gives the writer unlimited possibilities,
but it doesn't make it easy for you to visualize.  You can't feel
familiar with a landscape that you can't connect with a place you
have seen.

Keep in mind another fact:  none of the angels in the battle can die.
That may be nice for them, but it cuts down drastically on the range
of emotions the story can evoke.  We can't feel the pathos of a young
warrior's death or the suspense of a last-minute rescue.

In the circumstances, the War in Heaven is about as exciting as it
can be.  Look for the invention of gunpowder on the second day and
the terrifying scene on the third day when the rebels are pushed off
the edge of Heaven.  Read the book quickly to get its swift action.

PARADISE LOST: LINES 1-201. ABDIEL'S COURAGE

Through the night, Abdiel runs back to the Mount of God, expecting to
bring news of Satan's rebellion.  But the news is already known, and
preparations are well in hand.  God praises Abdiel from inside a
golden cloud, telling him that he has won the more difficult
battle--the moral one--by standing up for the right.  Now comes the
easier fight.

Commanded by Michael and Gabriel, the army of God marches out in
perfect order.  The angels fly above the ground like the birds who
came to get their names from Adam.  Remember that Raphael is telling
the story to Adam; this is why he uses "thee" in line 75.

The armies meet each other after marching a distance ten times longer
than the earth.  (This is certainly an imaginary battlefield!) Satan
descends from his gold chariot and walks toward the army of God.
Abdiel cannot bear to see Satan's pride and speaks to himself in a
speech called a "soliloquy." In his soliloquy, Abdiel resolves to
attack Satan, arguing that he should be able to win a physical fight
after winning the moral one.  So Abdiel becomes the champion of God's
army, the first to strike the rebel Lucifer.

PARADISE LOST: LINES 202-405. THE FIRST DAY OF THE WAR IN HEAVEN

As the war rages on and above the ground, Lucifer fights fiercely,
defeating all who come near him.  When he sees the archangel Michael
cutting down squadrons of the rebel angels with the sword he swings
in two hands, Satan thrusts his great shield (remember from Book I
that it is as big as the moon) between the sword and its intended
victims.  Michael challenges him to single combat.

It is a battle like that between two planets.  Each has almighty
power, but Michael has the advantage of a tempered sword.  He chops
Satan's sword in half and then pierces Satan's side as he lifts his
sword arm.  "Then Satan first knew pain," as a stream of liquid pours
from the wound.

Of course he soon recovers; he is an angel who "Cannot but by
annihilating die." Moloch suffers an even more terrible wound soon
after, when he is split down to the waist by Gabriel.  But again it's
not fatal.

It is becoming clear that the rebel angels are getting the worst of
the battle.  The heavenly forces retain their discipline:  "In cubic
phalanx firm advanced entire." Their strength comes from their
discipline because they have not sinned and disobeyed.

PARADISE LOST: LINES 406-669. THE SECOND DAY

The war stops for the night, but Satan does not rest.  He calls a
council to discuss their next move.  We now know something about his
debating style:  he's going to be asked a question to which he
conveniently has the answer.  Nisroc obliges.  He cannot stand pain,
the new discovery, and wants to know if there is any weapon which
would inflict some of it on their enemy.

It's already invented, Satan says.  Beneath the surface (remember,
this isn't the earth!) are the makings of gunpowder.  We shall
overwhelm God's forces with a new weapon, the cannon.  Raphael,
turning to Adam, who listens intently to the story, remarks that the
angels recognized what a simple idea it was once they had been told
about it.  For us twentieth-century readers, Raphael's remark that
man may just as easily invent more terrible instruments of war is
heavily ironical.

The "victor angels" rise next morning and scout for their enemy.  The
cherub Zophiel brings the news that the rebels are advancing, closely
packed.  They are hiding the cannon, but the heavenly host doesn't
know that yet.

Satan delivers a speech full of puns.  On the surface it seems he is
talking about offers of peace, but every word has two meanings:
"composure" means the composition of gunpowder as well as a truce;
"overture" is not the beginning of negotiations, as the heavenly host
is intended to think, but the opening blast from the cannon;
"discharge," "in charge," "touch," "propound," and "loud" all have
two meanings.

Raphael tells what he saw, because of course he was there:  as the
ranks of the rebel angels divided in two, the heavenly host saw what
looked like pillars laid in rows on wheels.  Behind each "pillar"
stood an angel with a lighted torch, who touched off the gunpowder.

The effect is all that the rebel angels hoped for.  As the enemy are
blasted off their feet, "By thousands, angel on archangel rolled."
The heavenly host are routed and rendered helpless, to the amusement
of Satan and his friends.  He and Belial enjoy themselves in two more
speeches full of fairly tedious puns.

The heavenly host finally pulls itself together and makes a somewhat
surprising counterattack.  They pull up hills and throw them on top
of the rebel angels.  The weight of the mountains causes their armor
to cut into their flesh painfully.  Although they are spirits and
logically shouldn't be capable of being imprisoned under heavy
weights, their sins have made their spirits heavy, and it's not so
easy for them to get out.

Meanwhile, those rebel angels who haven't been caught by flying
mountains adopt the trick themselves.  "So hills amid the air
encountered hills," as Heaven is torn up in a horrifying chaos which
seems worse than war itself.

PARADISE LOST: LINES 670-747. GOD INTERVENES

God has been watching the dreadful destruction.  He permits it in
order to enhance the glory of his Son, who will bring the conflict to
an end.  He tells the Son about the events of the first two days and
says that he has reserved the third for him:  "that the Glory may be
thine / Of ending this great war, since none but Thou / Can end it."
He commands him to lead out all the heavenly forces and drive the
rebel angels down to Hell.

The Son accepts the command willingly, again making a clear contrast
between his obedience and Satan's rebellion.  For the Son, "to obey
is happiness entire."

Do you feel that the Son is just too good to be true?  It's difficult
to feel in awe of him because he tends to sound like a kid who wants
to please authority.  But you might ask yourself how a writer can
portray goodness in the abstract.  What could Milton do to make the
Son as interesting as Satan is?

PARADISE LOST: LINES 748-892. THE THIRD DAY

God's chariot rushes out as soon as the third day dawns.  It is
magnificently decorated with jewels; flames surround a sapphire
throne on which the Son rides, with the allegorical figure of Victory
at his right hand.  He is accompanied by "ten thousand thousand
saints," a contrast to the weary soldiers under Michael's command.
The two forces combine to make an army of unimaginable size.  As the
Son and the Army advance, the hills uprooted in the previous day's
fighting return miraculously to their places and the flowers grow
again.

Satan's forces also regroup, "hope conceiving from despair." They
make themselves ready for a battle they know must be final.  The Son
tells his forces to stand aside--this battle is his.  The war was
caused by Lucifer's injured pride when God elevated his Son, so it is
right that the Son alone should fight the last fight:  "against me is
all their rage."

The sweeping of the fallen angels out of Heaven is the most thrilling
action of the War in Heaven.  The invention of gunpowder has its
comic aspects, but the sweep stretches the imagination.  Read it out
loud to get the excitement of the images and the sound effects.

The four cherubs on the Son's chariot spread their wings, and the
chariot charges on the enemy.  The rebel angels drop their weapons in
horror as the chariot rides over them:  "O'er shields and helms and
helmed heads he rode / Of Thrones and mighty Seraphim prostrate." He
uses no more than half of his forces; he doesn't want to destroy the
angels but to push them out of Heaven.

He drives them before him like a herd of frightened goats, to the
"Crystal wall of Heaven," which opens on Chaos.  The rebel angels
look out with horror, but they are so terrified of the Son in his
flaming chariot that they throw themselves down.

They fall for nine days through Chaos, who objects loudly to their
huge number.  He knows that he will lose a lot of territory to house
them in Hell.

Hell closes on the rebels now the fallen angels, while in Heaven the
faithful angels repair the gap in the crystal wall and the Son
returns to the honor of a seat on God's right hand.

PARADISE LOST: LINES 893-912. RAPHAEL'S WARNING TO ADAM

Now, Raphael says to Adam, you know how Satan got into Hell.  But he
is "now plotting how he may seduce / Thee also from obedience." Satan
intends to make man share his eternal misery in Hell in order to
revenge himself on God.  Be careful, Adam, Raphael warns:  do not
listen to his temptations.  And warn Eve.  She is "Thy weaker."
Remember the example of the fallen angels, who suffered because of
their disobedience.

PARADISE LOST: LINES 1-39. THE INVOCATION FOR THE SECOND HALF OF PARADISE LOST

Book VII marks the beginning of the second half of the poem, so
another invocation to Urania is in order.  "Half yet remains unsung,"
Milton says, but this half won't take him to such giddy heights in
the cosmos because the action will take place mostly on earth.

As you saw in the previous invocations, they give Milton a chance to
talk about himself.  Here he portrays himself as alone, blind ("In
darkness"), "fallen on evil days," and "with dangers compassed
round." For Milton, the restoration of the monarchy under King
Charles II meant forced retirement from public life and the danger of
personal reprisal from the victorious Royalists.  A number of his
friends suffered cruel deaths.  He thought of the king's party as
"Bacchus and his revellers," who tore apart the poet Orpheus in a
drunken orgy.  He hopes to find a few readers who can appreciate what
he has to say:  "fit audience find, though few."

PARADISE LOST: THE REST OF BOOK VII

We are now back at the point where Book I began.  But the flashback
isn't complete yet.  While the rebel angels were falling through
Chaos and lying chained on the burning lake in Hell, God created the
World.

The whole of Book VII is a retelling in frequently delightful poetry
of the Hebrew creation myth found in the Book of Genesis, Chapter I
and the first three verses of Chapter 2.  Read them parallel with
Book VII so that you can see where Milton uses the same words and
where he embroiders an idea suggested in Genesis.

There is one important difference you may have noticed from this
telling of the myth and Milton's.  In Paradise Lost it is God the Son
who goes down to the World and creates all things.  As you know from
the note on Christian theology in Book III, the Holy Trinity existed
from the first, in a mystic whole-and-part relationship.  When the
Hebrew creation myth was written, God was single, as he still is in
the Judaic religion.

But Milton isn't really clear about which aspect of God actually
performs the creation.  God takes the golden compasses (line 225) to
carve the world out of Chaos, and it isn't obvious that the Son is
meant here.  In fact, when the Son returns to Heaven in triumph,
Milton admits that God the Father had been along all the time:  "for
he also went / Invisible, yet stayed (such privilege / Hath
Omnipresence)".

You might want to consider the difficulties Milton has in making
details like this logically consistent.  Think of it this way:  we
now have a physical explanation for the universe; we can deduce the
origins of matter and life from scientific observations.  We don't
attribute moral qualities to the universe.  Our explanation is
objective and neutral.

But Milton saw the universe and its creation as moral acts.  From the
physical universe he deduced a necessary pattern of man's moral
behavior.  The Christian Son of God, with his sacrifice for mankind's
sake, had to be part of the essential structure of the universe.
Nothing is morally neutral, for everything speaks to us of God's
goodness and reminds us of our place in the universe and the
responsibilities due to that place.

It's worth pointing out that Milton was trying to do something we
don't attempt any more.  We now attribute moral behavior entirely to
our need to live together peaceably for everyone's benefit.

Book VII is a joyous interlude after the noise and terror of the War
in Heaven and before the anguish of Adam and Eve's temptation.  Just
enjoy it.  Read it fast for the sweep of the creation and the
pleasure of the details--the "fish that with their fins and shining
scales / Glide under the green wave"; the whale who "at his trunk
spouts out a sea"; and the mole throwing little hills of dirt behind
him as he digs.

PARADISE LOST: BOOK VIII

This book is the final part of the flashbacks.  Adam tells Raphael of
his own experiences when Eve was given to him.  Life in Paradise is
at its most idyllic here, just before the great catastrophe in Book
IX.  Because of what is soon to happen, Adam's happiness, so movingly
expressed, has a pathetic irony.

PARADISE LOST: LINES 1-178. ASTROPHYSICAL THEORIES

Adam detains Raphael with a question about the motion of the planets.
Wouldn't it seem more economical to have the earth move instead of
the sun, which works very hard to give the earth its light?

As Raphael prepares to answer, Eve slips away to work in her flower
garden.  She prefers to hear these explanations from Adam, who "would
intermix / Grateful digressions" and use his lips for other actions
besides talking.  In this book Eve behaves exactly as she should--in
sharp contrast to the next book.

Raphael's explanation shows that Milton was completely aware of
ancient and modern cosmological theories.  God, the "great
Architect," has not made his secrets easy for men to ferret out.  In
fact, he's probably laughing at the details of the Ptolemaic scheme:
"With centric and eccentric scribbled over / Cycle and epicycle, orb
in orb."

The universe was built by God for his own purposes, and man is
"lodged in a small partition." Raphael expounds Copernican cosmology
in a passage which is now very difficult to follow because it
contains terminology we no longer use.  The point is that it doesn't
matter if the sun "Rise on the earth or earth rise on the sun." In
any case, these matters are God's business and not man's:  "be lowly
wise:  / Think only what concerns thee and thy being."

NOTE:  HUMANISM You might be surprised that Milton seems to be
putting restrictions on inquiry.  But that's not really what he's
saying.  He admired Galileo, as you have seen, which shows his
interest in science.  Milton is advocating the kind of studies we now
call "humanities" and which were called "humanism" in the
Renaissance.  Humanism is contrasted with the obscure metaphysical
discussions which occupied medieval theologians.  Milton is putting
into Raphael's mouth the argument for man and man's concerns as the
highest good.  It was this humanism which led to the great scientific
discoveries of the eighteenth century, because humanism fixed men's
minds on this world, not on those "other worlds, what creatures there
/ Live, in what state, condition, or degree."

PARADISE LOST: LINES 179-451. ADAM AND GOD

Adam wants to talk further with Raphael, so he flatters him by saying
that he can never get enough of his words' "sweetness." There is a
nice little angelic joke when Raphael says that he'd be glad to hear
about Adam's first experiences, because at the time of Adam's
creation, Raphael was on guard duty outside Hell, seeing that no
devils disturbed the creation.  Raphael even heard the noise in
Pandemonium as the fallen angels debated.

But Adam's speech is not in the poem for the information it gives.
The material all comes from Chapter 2 of the Book of Genesis, so
there's nothing new in it--certainly not for an omniscient angel!
What it establishes is the relationship between Adam, representing
man, and God.

God created man like himself--"in his own image"--so naturally he
gave him no mate.  This left Adam with no one to talk to.  The beasts
are lower in the hierarchy and therefore no fit company for man.  God
complains that he himself is "alone / From all eternity, for none I
know / Second to me or like, equal much less." Yes, Adam says, but
you, God, can raise any member of your creation up to your own status
whenever you want company; I can't.

Finally God agrees to give Adam his heart's desire, but only because
Adam has passed the test of self-knowledge.

This conversation has given us two pieces of information:  man is
higher than the beasts but lower than God, and God sets up tests to
see whether man will pass them.  Adam passes this one, but he will
fail in the next book.

PARADISE LOST: LINES 451-653. MARRIAGE AND PARADISE

Do you know the word "uxorious"?  It comes from the Latin "uxor," the
word for "wife," and it is used to describe a man who is under his
wife's domination (not henpecked--that's too small an idea).  Adam
comes dangerously close to uxoriousness in his adoration of Eve.

He has some excuse for his extreme love, for she was formed from a
part of his own body.  No other couple can possibly enjoy such
closeness.  Adam knows very well that she is intended to be his
inferior, that she is less like God than he is.  But this means
nothing when Eve is near.  What she wants to do or say "seems wisest,
virtuousest, discreetest, best." She knows more than knowledge, is
wiser than wisdom, has greatness of mind and "nobleness" as well.

Raphael isn't entirely pleased to hear Adam's extravagant praise of
his wife.  Adam, he says, don't be unwise in overvaluing what your
better judgment tells you is "Less excellent." Eve is to be loved,
but she must not rule.  Sexual love should also not be overvalued,
for animals reproduce in the same way and are lower in the universal
order.  Adam must love with reason, as suits a man.

Adam feels the force of this rebuke and hastens to assure Raphael
that it is not Eve's body but her character which enchants him:
"those graceful acts / Those thousand decencies that daily flow /
From all her words and actions." He turns to Raphael:  since love is
the highest emotion and leads to Heaven, do angels love?  And if they
do, can they touch?

Raphael blushes as he explains that angels need no physical apparatus
to express their love.  With relief, he points out to Adam that the
sun is going down and he must leave.  He delivers a final summary of
the advice he has given Adam throughout their long conversation (it
has lasted more than three books of the poem) and departs.

PARADISE LOST: LINES 1-47. THE INTRODUCTION

This book, where the central action occurs, begins with a statement
that we are now coming to the tragic climax:  "I now must change /
These notes to tragic." He thinks his "sad task" more heroic, meaning
more worthy of epic treatment, than The Iliad or The Odyssey because
of the importance of his story.  He hopes he can rise to the occasion
with the help of Urania, who visits him each night with her
inspiration.

Milton says that he looked for a long time for the right subject for
his epic poem.  He didn't want to write about wars but about
something of worldwide significance.  His subject--the Fall of
man--is enough by itself to be called heroic; he hopes he will be
able to do justice to it, unless he is too old or too sick.  He
certainly can't do it without the help of Urania each night.  (You
will remember from the invocation to Book III that Milton composed
Paradise Lost each night and then dictated it in the morning.)

PARADISE LOST: LINES 47-191. SATAN ENTERS THE SERPENT

Satan has been circling the earth for seven days and nights.
Finally, on the eighth night, he slips through the guardian angels.
Paradise, as we said before, was in Mesopotamia, the land between the
rivers Tigris and Euphrates.  Satan went in with Tigris where it
flowed underground and came up with the river when it became a
fountain in Paradise, near the Tree of Life.

The places he has been are listed in a catalog of place names,
ranging from Eden through the river Ob in Siberia and back to India,
a list meant to impress with the range of Satan's wanderings.  He has
decided to use "The serpent, subtlest beast of all the field," for
his evil purposes.

As he prepares to enter the snake's body, Satan expresses his "inward
grief." This speech, addressed first to the earth and then becoming a
soliloquy about his feelings, is essential to an understanding of
Satan's character.  Read it with the psychological insight you'd use
if you were discussing someone you know.  It is a dramatic
presentation of the confused and contradictory feelings people have
when they are so frustrated that they want to do something reckless.

Watch the shift in Satan's focus as his feelings change.  First he
admires the earth, at the center of the universe, receiving light
from all the other heavenly bodies.  How pleasant it would have been
for Satan to live on earth, but instead "the hateful siege / Of
contraries" increases his torments.  The only way to resolve his
contradictory feelings is to destroy man.  Then he will be able to
say that he has spoiled in one day what it took God six days to
create.

The thought of God shifts his focus to his near victory:  almost half
of the angels followed him in Heaven rather than God.  Satan
attributes the creation of man to God's need to replace the numbers
of angels lost.

He returns briefly to the magnificence of the World and the angels
guarding it.  His pride makes him sympathize with what he thinks is
the indignity of service.  Pride also causes him anguish at having to
use the serpent, "bestial slime," as a hiding place to elude the
angels.

But he will do anything for revenge, despite his understanding that
revenge "back on itself recoils." His final focus is on spite, the
meanest kind of revenge.

He finds the serpent and enters through his mouth.  Until this
moment, the serpent was as innocent as any other creature:  "Fearless
unfeared he slept." With details like this, Milton increases the
sense of terrible impending tragedy which will spoil the innocence of
everything forever.

PARADISE LOST: LINES 191-384. THE FATAL DECISION

For the serpent to tempt Eve, he must have her on her own.  In the
Biblical source of the story there is no mechanism for Eve to become
separated from Adam.  In Milton's version, this dialog not only
separates Adam and Eve, it also tells us about their relationship.
You can see that the angel Raphael had reason to warn Adam against
uxoriousness.

The arguments Eve makes are reasonable ones.  So are Adam's replies.
The dialog illustrates the old saying that the way to Hell is paved
with good intentions.

Eve first argues for the division of labor:  if we separate, we will
get twice as much done, When we work together, we talk too much.

Adam gently points out that God won't really mind if all the garden
chores do not get done.  God didn't make man for toil, but for
"delight / He made us, and delight to reason joined." If you really
want to leave me for a little while, I won't mind--except for one
thing:  we have been warned of danger and should stay together.

This is not news to Eve, who had overheard the conversation between
Adam and Raphael.  But she is not pleased by the implication that she
can't be trusted to repel the seducer.

Adam hastily assures her that he didn't mean she can't be trusted,
but that Satan will be unlikely to attack if they are together.  Even
if you fight off the temptation, it is a horrible experience which
you don't want to suffer if you can help it.  He is a strong enemy,
for he seduced half the angels.  Stay with me, Eve:  I am
strengthened by your presence.  Don't you feel the same?

But, Eve argues, Paradise isn't much if we have to stick together for
fear of harm.  God could not have "Left so imperfect" the situation
in Eden.

Adam severely puts Eve right, using the word "woman" instead of the
usual flattering titles.  God is perfect, but he left man free will.
The responsibility is ours, so I am not mistrusting you, Eve, but
simply taking sensible precautions.  First prove your obedience.
After all, if you repel the tempter alone, who will be there to see?
Adam finally gives the responsibility to Eve:  she has her own free
will and must make her own choices.  If she stays to please Adam, she
would build up resentment.  With a warning, he gives permission for
her to go.

Eve has the last word, as Milton points out.  She feels perfectly
confident in her own powers, and she's convinced that Satan wouldn't
attack the weaker of the two first.  If he did, "the more shame his
repulse."

PARADISE LOST: LINES 385-493. SATAN WATCHING EVE

They part, promising to meet for lunch.  Milton addresses Eve
directly as she walks away, innocent for the last time.

The serpent has found Eve alone.  He watches her and smells her
delicious perfume as she tends the plants.  Her effect on Satan is
expressed in a long and very famous epic simile, beginning with the
line "As one who long in populous city pent." A city dweller breathes
with pleasure the scents of the country air and finds a country girl
so lovely that she "sums all delight." In fact, for a few moments,
Eve's innocent beauty makes Satan "stupidly good."

But not for long.  He hisses to himself that he has forgotten the
main purpose of his journey, which is not to enjoy himself but to
destroy others.  Eve is alone, without the protection of her husband
"Whose higher intellectual more I shun." His hate is stronger than
her beauty.

Think back to Eve's boast and Satan's relief that he has found the
weaker of the pair alone.  The irony is almost unbearable.

PARADISE LOST: LINES 494-790. THE TEMPTING OF EVE

This is the climax of Paradise Lost.  In this dialog you see the
tempter at his most subtle and Eve--representing woman--at her worst.
It is a marvelously dramatic scene, with the tension increasing in
every line.  You begin to bite your nails with anxiety for Eve,
wanting to shout at her that the serpent is getting at all her
weakest points.  By the end of the scene, it's all over.  Everything
in the world is downhill after this.

First the serpent gets Eve's attention by playing in front of her
like all the other animals.  Then he flatters her:  every living
thing adores your beauty, but they are all beasts and there is only
one man to appreciate you.  You should be a goddess because you are
so beautiful.

Eve is a bit surprised that a serpent can talk, since speech was
denied to animals at the creation.  However, they often look and act
like reasonable creatures.  She asks the serpent to explain why he
has suddenly become so friendly to her.

Watch how the serpent works on Eve's vanity.  The serpent was the
only animal who could reach the fruit of the tree, so there is
something special about him.  And then, after eating the fruit had
made him wise and able to speak, his new wisdom made him appreciate
Eve, "sovereign of creatures, universal dame." Is such flattery
resistible?  And is it a fair assumption that a woman always falls
for it?  Eve has no model of female behavior from which to learn or
to compare herself with.

The serpent offers to show her the wonderful tree, and they set off
together.  An epic simile performs its usual function of intensifying
the message:  as the serpent leads Eve through the undergrowth, the
jeweled crest on his head shines like those phosphorescent vapors
which rise above bogs and marshes.  People mistake them for lights
and get drowned--exactly as Eve is going to be misled.

Eve is puzzled when she arrives with the serpent at the Tree of
Knowledge.  We can't touch this tree, she says.  God commanded it.
But notice carefully what she says next:  except for this
prohibition, we live according to the dictates of our reason, which
is our law.  The word "reason" is central to the serpent's argument
with Eve's fatal decision.  Reason is a fallible guide for mankind,
who should trust God.

After Eve has reiterated God's prohibition (using the exact words of
Genesis in lines 662 and 663), Satan seems to pull himself up and
marshall all his forces like a classical orator preparing for a
supreme speech.  Satan's speech is a classic of persuasion.

The tree is the "mother of science," and he feels the power of
knowledge within him.  Eve--"Queen of the universe"--will not die.
The fruit is life, knowledge--it cannot kill.  Look at me:  I ate it
and here I am.  Why does God deny to a man what a beast has tasted?

God must have prohibited the tree because he wanted no rivals.  When
a beast eats the fruit, he moves up the hierarchy and becomes human;
so, logically, if a human eats the fruit, he will become a god.
Using another logical argument, Satan asks what harm there is in
man's having knowledge, since God has power over everything and will
only give man knowledge of what he wills to.  You need this fruit,
Eve:  "Goddess humane, reach then and freely taste."

And then Milton adds a stroke of genius that makes the story truly
moving:  Eve is already partly persuaded by those treacherous guides,
logic and reason, but it's also lunchtime and she's hungry.  You will
sympathize with this--so often a tiny practical detail tips the
balance when you're making a decision.

Eve's speech is full of logic and reason.  If the tree protects the
knowledge of good and evil, how can we know good without tasting the
fruit?  She raises the question which never receives a satisfactory
answer:  has God forbidden wisdom to man?  The argument that
convinces Eve is the sight of the serpent, obviously none the worse
for having tasted the fruit.  You will realize, as Eve does not, that
the serpent is lying.  He has never tasted the fruit.  Do you think
Eve even suspects that the serpent is really Satan in disguise?

Within two lines the deed is done:  "she plucked, she ate." The earth
shudders.  The serpent slinks back to his cover while Eve gorges
herself until she is drunk on the fruit.

PARADISE LOST: LINES 795-999. ADAM'S FALL

The first thing Eve does after she has fallen to temptation is to
worship the tree and the "sapience" (wisdom) it has given her.
Instead of worshipping God in the morning, now she will care for the
tree, praise it, and pick its fruit.  Next she thanks experience for
leading her to wisdom.  In doing these things she is intensifying her
sin because she is making the tree into her god instead of the true
God.  She now calls him the "great forbidder, safe with all his spies
/ About him."

Eve decides to share her gift with Adam, but her motive is impure,
like all her thinking now.  If she must die, having eaten of the Tree
of Knowledge, and if Adam doesn't die but remains immortal, he will
get another Eve.  Much better to have Adam die too.

Adam has made her a garland of flowers for her hair, but he's
worried.  He goes to meet her and finds her coming from the Tree of
Knowledge with a branch in her hand.  We can only imagine his face as
he sees that sight.

Eve spills out the whole story to him and urges him to eat so that
they will be equal.  If he doesn't, a difference in degree will
divide them, for she does not want to renounce her newfound deity.

Adam drops the garland, transfixed with horror.  He realizes who the
serpent really is.  In an internal soliloquy, he decides to join her
because of his love.  When he speaks aloud to Eve, he is surprisingly
mild, for he recognizes that the deed cannot be undone.  Perhaps God
will not destroy us, he reasons, for to do so would give God a poor
reputation in the eyes of Satan.  In any case, Adam cannot be divided
from Eve, for they are one flesh.  Eve's answer includes the first
time her action is named "guilt" and "crime." She too believes that
Death will not come, for she feels full of life, "new hopes, new
joys."

So he takes the fruit from her hand and eats.  Again the earth
trembles.  Milton says that Adam ate the fruit

Against his better knowledge, not deceived But fondly overcome with
female charm.

His crime is different from Eve's:  he did not succumb directly to
the tempter but instead put Eve's love ahead of his duty to God.
Both Adam and Eve have now pushed God away from his rightful place in
their thoughts.  In Eve's case, she worships a tree; in Adam's, he
worships Eve.

PARADISE LOST: LINES 1000-1189. ADAM AND EVE'S FIRST QUARREL

The only time that Milton uses the phrase "original sin" to describe
the Fall is in the first lines after Adam has committed it.  The sin
is consummated with the first lustful copulation in Paradise.  Adam
and Eve behave like two people after a party, too drunk to care what
they're doing.

When they've slept it off, they realize for the first time that they
are naked.  Despair settles on Adam as he reproaches Eve.  How can he
ever again talk with God and his angels in his shameful nakedness?
He suggests that they find some way to cover themselves.

They use fig leaves from the Indian banyan tree.  Now Adam and Eve
look like the native Americans that Columbus found when he arrived in
the New World.

Their sorry state causes them not only to weep but to feel anger,
hate, mistrust, and suspicion for each other.  They begin a miserable
quarrel, full of the kind of reproaches which are perfectly true but
of no help whatsoever in the present situation.  If you hadn't eaten
the fruit, Adam says to Eve, we'd still be happy.  If you had
commanded me not to leave you, Eve says, I wouldn't have done this.
It's your fault.

Adam furiously replies that he won't take that responsibility--he
couldn't force her against her free will.  Perhaps I was a bit
overconfident, but I'm sorry for it now, especially since you are
accusing me of causing the whole mess.  Any man who trusts a woman
will not only get into trouble, he'll get blamed for it as well.

The quarrel goes on.  It can't come to any conclusion because neither
is willing to take responsibility.  You will understand that from
your own experience; nothing improves until one party is willing to
give a little and then the other joins in.  But it's deadlock until
that point.

PARADISE LOST: BOOK X

The events in Book IX are like a spark causing the explosion of
reactions in Book X.  We're going to see the consequences of the Fall
on earth, in Heaven, and in Hell.  The book contains an enormous
variety of action, from the building of the great bridge across Chaos
to the suicidal thoughts of Eve.  You won't be bored in this book,
and you'll even find occasional comic touches--for example, when
Death complains that there isn't much meat for him on earth with only
two people around.

PARADISE LOST: LINES 1-228. THE SON JUDGES ADAM AND EVE

The book opens with a moralizing summary of what has happened.  God
allowed Satan to tempt Eve, who in turn corrupted Adam.  They had
free will and "ought to have still remembered" not to taste the fruit
no matter who suggested it.  They are clearly guilty.  Now it remains
to be seen how the penalty will be inflicted.

The guardian angels have returned to Heaven "mute and sad / For man,"
and a bit shamefaced themselves, for they didn't catch Satan as he
entered Paradise.  God, speaking from his cloud, absolves them of
blame, since nothing they could have done would have prevented Satan
from getting in.

At the same time he absolves himself from blame in the Fall.  He
doesn't seem very sympathetic toward Adam, who doesn't understand
that Death will come, even though it hasn't struck immediately.  God
sends the Son to judge Adam and Eve because that's appropriate to the
Son's future role as man's redeemer.

The Son reminds himself that he himself will suffer the worst of
these events, as he has promised to do.  He will go alone to the
Garden of Paradise, and the judgment will be a private matter.

The narrative of the judgment follows Genesis closely (in one case,
word for word).  Read it so that you can see the source of Adam and
Eve's different answers.  Adam doesn't come off very well:  he blames
Eve, and to some extent he blames God.  You gave me this woman, he
says, and you made her so perfect that I couldn't resist her.

Eve answers with simplicity, as she does in the Biblical account:
"The serpent beguiled me and I did eat." With her admission of guilt
and acceptance of responsibility, Eve regains some dignity.

The judgment on the serpent--that he and mankind will always be
enemies--is followed by a flashforward to the time when the Son in
his form as the man Jesus Christ will clean out Hell, fulfilling the
punishment on the serpent.

Eve's punishment is the pain of childbirth and domination by her
husband.  Adam's is hard work.  In Book IX, when Adam tried to
persuade Eve not to be so compulsive about their work in the garden,
he said that they were formed for delight, not work.  The Fall has
changed all that.  Man is now made for work.

At least the instant stroke of Death has been "removed far off." The
Son shows that other aspect of his role, service to man, as he
provides clothes for Adam and Eve and inwardly gives them his own
righteousness to conceal them from God's sight.

PARADISE LOST: LINES 230-417. THE ARRIVAL OF SIN AND DEATH

We last saw Satan's daughter and son/grandson in Book II, when Satan
left Hell.  He hasn't returned since, though he has been in many
other parts of the universe.  Sin and Death think that no news is
good news.  Since he's been so long away, he must have been
successful, and there will be prey for both of them.

Remember that Sin and Death are allegorical figures.  When Sin says
that she feels new strength within her, we understand that Sin is
gaining from man's fall.  She suggests building a path from Hell to
the World, an allegorical way of implying that there'll be a lot of
traffic both ways pretty soon.

Death is all for it.  He can already smell his prey.  They set off
like two vultures who arrive on a battlefield the day before the
fight--they know what's coming.

When they get out into Chaos, they collect all the solid material
flying and floating around there and drive it back toward the mouth
of Hell, like (another epic simile) winds from the North Pole driving
icebergs to stop up the Northeast passage.  Sin and Death make this
material into a landing place anchored deep in the roots of Hell.
Building from this "beach," they make a bridge right across Chaos,
ending at the point on top of the world where Satan first looked down
to the earth.  (Recall Book III; this is the point where you can look
up into Heaven, down into the World, and out into Chaos.  The bridge
is on the left of the universe.)

Sin and Death are poised at that spot, their road made behind them,
when Satan arrives.  He had hidden himself when the Son came down to
judge him and Adam and Eve.  He doesn't seem upset by the prophecy
that mankind "will bruise his heel." He is too pleased with his
success to worry much about what he thinks will be a punishment that
lies far in the future.

Compare Satan's greeting of Sin here with their first meeting in Book
II.  Satan has become so deeply tainted by his destructive revenge
that he greets the loathsome figure with joy.  When he first saw her,
he recoiled in shame from his connection with her.

Sin hails her father as victor.  "Thine now is all the world." You're
fully avenged for the defeat in Heaven, and God will have to divide
his realm with you.  It seems like a reasonable conclusion--one you
might have reached yourself--yet this is only Book X; Books XI and
XII will change things for Satan.  But now he is triumphant as he
delegates his reign on earth to Sin and Death.  They go straight down
through the spheres to earth, while Satan takes the high road across
Chaos to Hell.

PARADISE LOST: LINES 418-584. SERPENTS IN HELL

At the beginning of this book the guardian angels returned to Heaven
sad and ashamed that Satan had tricked them and entered Paradise.  In
contrast, when Satan arrives in Hell, he remains invisible while he
takes his seat on his throne, and then he is suddenly revealed in
what he thinks is glory but Milton despises as "false glitter." Satan
is so sure that his victory has restored him to his former state that
he calls the assembled fallen angels by that great rolling title,
"Thrones, Dominations, Princedoms, Virtues, Powers."

His speech is a long boast about his accomplishments and how easy it
was to seduce the new creation.  He has done it all with an apple!
God is so disproportionately angered that for one little apple he has
given up his beloved man and his new World to Sin and Death.  They're
looking after the place until we can all get up there to rule over
man.  Satan doesn't think much of God's punishment:

His seed, when is not set, shall bruise my head:
A world who would not purchase with a bruise?

Satan himself can hardly be more surprised than we are at what
happens next.  All the devils in Pandemonium, including Satan, become
serpents.  Enjoy Milton's wonderful details as he describes an angel
becoming a serpent, his face narrowing, his arms and legs becoming
part of his body.  Finally he falls on his belly.  Read the whole
passage aloud to hear the hissing that comes from all those "s"
sounds.  The catalog of classical serpents adds horror by
association.

After the fallen angels become serpents, they climb a tree to get
fruit and it turns to bitter ashes in their mouths.  Milton tells us
that the devils must assume the shape of snakes for a certain time
each year to humble their pride.  He refers to snake cults in
classical Greek myth, suggesting that they arose through the
connection of Satan and serpent.

NOTE:  THE EQUATION OF SNAKES WITH DEVILS It is difficult for us to
sympathize with the stigmatizing of one creature, the snake.  We
think of snakes as members of the reptile family with distinct and
fascinating adaptations to survival in divergent habitats.  But
treating animals as being morally neutral is very modern.  (It hasn't
completely taken over yet; cockroaches are not regarded with
detachment, even by sophisticated people, when they share their
kitchens!) Snakes, serpents, worms, and dragons (a not quite mythical
variety of snakelike lizard) have had moral and magical significance
for almost all the world's religions.  Milton's extreme antipathy
stems more from the snake's association with other religions than
from any feelings about the biological animal.  Snakes represent the
practices of religions that seduce weak people away from the true
religion.

PARADISE LOST: LINES 585-714. A CHANGED WORLD

Here we are, Sin says to her son Death, what do you think of this
empire?  Isn't this better than sitting at the gate of Hell?  Death
replies that there don't seem to be many pickings for him.  Just wait
a bit till I've worked on man, Sin says, and you'll have plenty.
Meanwhile, work on everything else that lives--plants, animals, fish,
birds.

From this dialog we gather that Death came to everything in the
World, not just man, when Adam fell.

In Heaven, God watches the advance of Sin and Death and remarks to
the Son and the angels that he has permitted them to enter the world
so that they can act as a kind of sanitation system.  At Christ's
second coming the mouth of Hell and all its filthy contents will be
sealed up, and Heaven and Earth will be renewed.  But not until then.

God assigns angels to jobs which will make the world look the way we
know it now.  These angels bring about summer and winter, arrange the
planets to bring about bad influences; push the earth several degrees
off a vertical axis; alter the sun's path so that all parts of the
earth have seasonal changes, and cause the North, South, East and
West winds to bring the extremes of weather which make life
difficult.  Death begins to affect the animals as Sin's daughter
Discord does her work.

Milton is describing the postlapsarian world--the world after the
Fall, or "lapse." The contrast with the prelapsarian world makes you
feel the enormity of Adam's disobedience.

PARADISE LOST: LINES 715-1104. ADAM AND EVE IN DESPAIR

No one could be feeling worse than Adam feels as he watches these
appalling changes ruining his world.  His long lament begins with the
eternal question "Why was I born?" and continues with "When can I
die?" It is a meditation on Death by one who doesn't know what to
expect and is thoroughly frightened.  But the speech also marks
Adam's growth:  he accepts the responsibility for what has happened,
even though he knows that all mankind will curse him for it.  No one
except Satan himself can approach the enormity of Adam's crime or the
eternal extent of his "doom."

Adam lies writhing in misery on the ground, hoping for the relief of
Death which will not come.  Eve approaches to comfort him, but he
turns on her savagely and calls her "serpent."

The following speech sums up all the fury and venom which men have
felt for women through the ages.  It includes the famous image of the
crooked rib, the symbol of everything dishonest about women.  The
speech is vibrant with Milton's own personal fury against women.
Despite his three marriages--or because of them--Milton felt unable
to trust women.  Everything goes wrong when a man tries to find a
"fit mate."

In Milton's case, a wife is first "withheld / By parents," referring
to his experience with Mary Powell, whose Royalist family kept her
away from Milton for more than three years after they were married.
Then he speaks of his experience with Miss Davies, whom he met after
he was married and realized she was his "happiest choice" too late.
(He does not mention here that he lost his second wife, whom he loved
dearly and called his "espoused saint," after only slightly more than
a year of marriage.)

Eve takes the only course likely to succeed:  she falls at Adam's
feet and begs forgiveness.  She too finally takes responsibility for
her fault, pointing out that she sinned doubly, against Adam and
against God.  Adam relents.  They must work together to lighten their
burden now that they must live "A long day's dying."

Eve makes two more suggestions, both of which Adam--now stronger
against Eve's arguments by dreadful experience--rejects.  She
suggests to him that they should not make love so that there will be
no children to suffer eternally for their sin.  Alternatively, she
says, let us kill ourselves now.

Adam has reassumed his leadership in their marriage.  Death will not
cheat God, for he will find some way to make us feel Death; instead
let us live and produce children so that the other part of God's
judgment may be performed, the part which promises destruction
through the woman's offspring:  "to crush his head / Would be revenge
indeed."

The idea revives Adam's spirits.  Look, Eve, he says, we are still
alive--God did not kill us at once.  On you he laid the pains of
childbirth, but they have their counterpart in the joy of the new
baby.  I have to work for what we eat, but that is not so bad.  Work
is better than idleness, and God will help us to cope with the
seasons and the weather.  He will answer our prayers with fire and
other things we need, so that we may live quite comfortably.  Let us
both go and ask forgiveness on the same spot where he judged us.  He
will treat us with mercy when we confess our responsibility for our
sin.

And so Adam quite unconsciously follows Eve's example:  she fell on
the ground before him, her God ("he for God only, she for God in
him"), and was comforted and forgiven.  Now they both do the same,
confident in God's grace.

PARADISE LOST: LINES 1-125. GOD'S JUDGMENT

When Adam and Eve's prayers go up to Heaven, it is the Son who pleads
for them.  He is beginning to assume his role as man's advocate
before God the Father, a role he will complete when he becomes Jesus
Christ and is sacrificed for man's sins.

God grants the Son's plea not to kill Adam and Eve at once, but to
give them death as a merciful end to an unhappy life.  Adam had two
gifts:  happiness and immortality.  Now both are gone.

God calls a meeting of the heavenly host to announce his decision.
Look at this speech (lines 84-98) if you are interested in the
character of Milton's God and the logic (or lack of it) of his
position.  Man, he says, has become like us, for now he knows good
and evil.  He must leave the Garden of Paradise in case he also eats
fruit from the Tree of Life and becomes immortal like us.

You might want to consider these questions about God's argument:  Is
God frightened that Adam will gain more power?  Since he is
omniscient, doesn't he know whether in the future Adam will eat the
fruit of the other tree?  God's speech makes us worry again about the
relationship between God's foreknowledge and his omnipotence.

Michael--the archangel who wielded the two-handed sword in the War in
Heaven--is given the job of escorting Adam and Eve out of Paradise.

PARADISE LOST: LINES 126-208. HOPES AND FEARS

Praying together has made Adam and Eve feel more lovingly toward each
other.  They hope they can go on with their work in the garden, and
they set out for it.  But Adam sees unfavorable signs and expresses
his fears to Eve.

NOTE:  OMENS The unfavorable signs that frighten Adam are an eclipse,
an eagle chasing two brightly colored birds, and a beast (possibly a
lion) hunting down a female and a male deer.  The three together
forecast what is to happen.  An eclipse is regarded in religions and
myths throughout the world as a sign of Heaven's anger--the
withdrawal of light is a drastic step because man depends on light
for life.  In this case, the eclipse makes a dramatic background for
the arrival of Michael and his band of angels, who descend in a white
cloud from Heaven.

The eagle and the lion are both animals associated with the highest
gods--the eagle is "the bird of Jove." Their victims are clearly
symbols of Adam and Eve.  So the signs mean that God will drive them
out of Paradise.

Milton is following classical tradition when he introduces symbolic
signs.  the Romans were especially fond of looking for indications of
the future in the behavior of birds and animals.  The superstition
survives in our belief that a black cat crossing in front of you
brings you bad luck (if you are an American) or good luck (if you are
European).

PARADISE LOST: LINES 208-420. SENTENCE ON ADAM AND EVE

Adam's misgivings increase as he sees that the angel sent down is not
Raphael, who is "sociably mild," but someone much sterner.  He tells
Eve to leave.  She obeys at once.

From her hiding place she hears Michael tell Adam that they are to
leave the garden.  Her speech sounds like the reaction of any woman
who is told she must leave a house where she has been happy.  How can
we even breathe the air anywhere else?

The archangel Michael tells Eve that she must adapt herself.  She
must follow her husband:  "Where he abides, think there thy native
soil."

Adam's sorrow comes from a different source, one more suitable to his
direct connection with God.  If he is no longer in Paradise, how will
he be able to talk with God and his messengers, the angels?  Michael
assures him that God will be everywhere in the World.  He gave all
the earth, not merely Paradise, to man to rule, and if all had gone
according to the original plan, eventually Adam's offspring would
range out from Paradise, which would become a capital city.

In his love, God has sent Michael to show Adam how the world will
develop.  He makes Eve sleep while Adam sees images of the future--a
reversal of the situation when Eve was made out of Adam's rib.

Michael and Adam go up Mount Niphates in order to look down on the
earth.  An epic comparison tells us that the hill is "not higher" or
"wider looking round" than the hill from which Satan tempted Jesus
Christ by showing him the whole World.  The long string of names
impresses with the sense that everything--even the Incas' cities in
South America--can be seen from the hill.  The comparison has a
deeper significance:  the temptation of Christ by Satan on the desert
mountain is the subject of Paradise Regained, a much shorter poem.
Milton was obviously thinking about it, because he refers to Christ
in this passage as "our second Adam."

Michael treats Adam's eyes with herbs so that he may be better able
to see what is in store.  But Adam faints from the effects of three
drops from the Well of Life and has to be revived.

NOTE:  OLD AND NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY The events of the poem are now
basically over, except for the unbearably sad departure from
Paradise.  If you have seen a tragedy or read one, you know that the
final scenes usually bring you out of horror and despair by restoring
the sense that life goes on.  You are told what happens to the other
characters after the main ones are dead.  There is a sense of healing
and hope for future calm.

The final part of Book XI and all of Book XII have this function in
Paradise Lost.  They constitute a flashforward to the events related
in the Old and New Testaments of the Bible.  The narrative takes us
up to the Flood by the end of Book XI and continues through the life
of Christ and a forecast of the Last Judgment in Book XII.

The Old Testament tells the history of the people in the countries
surrounding the Red Sea and the Eastern Mediterranean, the countries
we now call Israel, Egypt, Syria, Jordan, and Lebanon.  It is a
sacred text in three religions, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.

The New Testament is a sacred text in Christianity, which believes
that Jesus Christ was the Messiah prophesied in the Old Testament.
(Jesus is also a prophet in Islam, but he does not have the central
status he has in Christianity.  Judaism does not believe the Messiah
has come yet.) The New Testament also gives us the history of the
early Christian church, and it culminates in the Book of Revelation,
a mystic vision from which Milton took much of his description of
angels, heavenly ceremony, the War in Heaven, and the Last Judgment.

You will come away from a reading of Books XI and XII with a general
overview of the main events in both testaments.  But there's much
more here than a simple summary; Milton gives his opinions on his
political and religious enemies and explains Christian doctrine
throughout.

PARADISE LOST: LINES 371-551. DEATH AND OLD AGE

Remember that Adam has no idea what to expect from death.  It's just
a word to him.  When Michael shows him Cain killing Abel, he cries
out that "some great mischief" has happened to him.  Michael explains
that these two are Adam's own sons, so that he is seeing all at once
the first death, the first murder, and the first fratricide.

Adam is horrified that death is so ugly and dirty, for Abel rolls "in
dust and gore" as he dies.  Michael makes him feel even worse as he
shows him a hospital with people dying from all manner of diseases,
some of them even crying for death as a release.

Adam's distress brings from Michael the explanation that the sin of
Eve brought down on mankind the curse of sickness because she did not
respect God's image in herself.  Sickness comes from excesses which
pervert the image of God in every person.

However, Michael says to comfort Adam, if you live temperately, you
will die of old age, not sickness.  He gives a touchingly realistic
picture of old age, with its lost youth, strength, and beauty and its
"melancholy damp of cold and dry." The result is that Adam thinks
death a deliverance from "this cumbrous charge," life, which he isn't
so eager now to prolong.  Michael sums up the discussion in a
two-line moral:

Nor love thy life nor hate; but what thou livst
Live well, how long or short permit5 to Heaven.

PARADISE LOST: LINES 556-898. NOAH AND THE FLOOD

Michael shows to Adam the sons of Cain corrupted by "fair atheists,"
prompting a bitter response from Adam:  men's troubles always begin
with women.  Michael immediately rebukes him:  you can't blame
women--blame your own "effeminate slackness." Man has superior gifts
and should use them.

Things get worse as the children of those "ill-fated marriages" first
fight among themselves and then give themselves up to riotous
self-indulgence.  Only one man, Noah, tries to stop them.  He doesn't
get anywhere, so he moves away and then builds an ark.  He knows what
God is going to do.

Adam is in despair again as he sees the entire earth swallowed up in
the flood, with only Noah and the creatures in his ark saved.  He
tells Michael that he isn't enjoying seeing what is to come:  no one
should see what will happen to his "seed," his descendants, because
he can't do anything to change it and can only suffer.

But it gives Michael a chance to praise Noah, and this gives Milton a
chance to talk about himself.  As you will remember from the
invocation to Book VII, Milton felt himself the only defender of
truth left when the Royalists returned.  He was

the only son of light
In a dark age, against example good
Against allurement, custom, and a world
Offended...

Like Noah, he dares to stand up for what is right when everyone else is wrong.

As Michael tells the rest of the story of Noah and the ark, he shows
that the Mount of Paradise will be moved by the force of the water
from Mesopotamia down through the Persian Gulf to become an island.
By including this detail, Milton was able to do justice to two
traditions--one which said Paradise was between the Tigris and the
Euphrates, and one which said it was one of the South seas islands.

Adam is relieved to see that mankind gets a sign from God, the
rainbow, as a pledge that he won't drown the world again.

PARADISE LOST: LINES 1-360. THE HISTORY OF THE CHILDREN OF ISRAEL

The history rolls on, through the story of the Tower of Babel;
Abraham, Joseph, and the journey to Egypt; the freeing of the
Israelites by Moses, with the parting of the Red Sea; the Ten
Commandments given to Moses by God; and the making of the Holy
Tabernacle.

When the narrative gets to Joshua, Adam interrupts to ask why mankind
needs so many laws, for "so many laws argue so many sins." This gives
Michael (who is clearly the voice of Milton) an opportunity to say
that laws discover sin because they provoke the sinful to break them,
which of course brings on more laws.  But law can't remove sin.  Law
shows a need to make recompense for sin; it accustoms man to the need
for internal discipline.  Milton thinks law is inferior to faith, the
free acceptance of God's will.

After Joshua (whose name is close to that of Jesus--both mean
"savior") has brought the Israelites into the promised land of
Canaan, they continue to have political troubles, including their
seventy-year captivity in Babylon.  In fact, they are so politically
messed up that when their Messiah, Jesus Christ, the Son of God in
human form, arrives, the Jews are ruled by the Romans.

PARADISE LOST: LINES 360-480. GOD THE SON BECOMES MAN

The story of Christ's birth is told in lines 360-371.  You might also
want to read Milton's earlier poem, "Hymn on the Morning of Christ's
Nativity," which is a wonderful musical celebration of the virgin
birth.

The news brings great joy to Adam, who is able at last to see
something good coming from the "seed" of Eve.  At last, he thinks,
his descendants will bruise the serpent's head.

NOTE:  THE DOCTRINE OF THE "FELIX CULPA," THE "HAPPY FAULT" In
Christian doctrine, Adam's sin is looked on not only as the origin of
all pain, death, and sin in the world, but also--paradoxically--as
the source of all our joy.  Because Adam sinned, God sent his Son
down to become the man Jesus Christ and save the world.  If Adam had
not sinned, there would be no savior.  So his was a "happy fault,"
"felix culpa" in Latin, sometimes also translated as the "fortunate
fall."

The crucifixion and death of Christ fulfill the prophesy that Eve's
seed shall bruise the heel of Satan.  Man's sins are atoned for.
Christ will return to Heaven after his resurrection--when he defeats
Death--and there will wait until his Second Coming.  Then he will
return to judge the entire world, and man will join the angels in
Heaven.

The news of this eventual reconciliation with God causes Adam to
break out in a hymn of praise to God.  He wonders whether he should
repent of his sin or rejoice that the "felix culpa" will bring about
such a triumphant ending for mankind.

PARADISE LOST: LINES 480-551. THE HOLY SPIRIT AND THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH

In answer to Adam's question as to who will guide the people after
Christ goes back to Heaven, Michael describes the coming of the Holy
Ghost, or Holy Spirit.  You will remember from the note to Book III
that the Christian God is a trinity, but the Holy Spirit is not
mentioned until men need him.  Like the Father and the Son, he has
been present from the beginning.  It is the Holy Spirit to whom
Milton prays for help with writing Paradise Lost, as you will
remember from the very first lines.

The future history of the church isn't all smooth sailing, however.
The "wolves" referred to in line 508 are the popes of the Roman
Catholic Church, whom Milton saw as deceivers, using the church to
make themselves wealthy.  (In his time he was probably justified;
think about the magnificent buildings full of statues and paintings
built by the Renaissance popes and their families.)

The world will go on in the same way, the good suffering and the bad
prospering, until the Day of Judgment, when all shall get what they
deserve and "new heavens and new earth" will be "founded in
righteousness and peace and love."

PARADISE LOST: LINES 551-649. THE FINAL WALK THROUGH PARADISE

Milton has poured all the Christian wisdom necessary for a good life
into Adam's final speech.  Adam has learned the hard way, but now he
knows that to obey is best, that dependence on God's truth will bring
him mercy and strength.  It must be Milton's own voice we hear in the
lines:  "That suffering for Truth's sake / Is fortitude to highest
victory."

Michael sees that he's finished his work, for Adam has "attained the
sum / Of wisdom." He urges him to live in faith, virtue, patience,
temperance, but to add love to all of these.  If he takes love with
him in his soul, he will not be leaving Paradise but will have it
always with him.

The time has come to leave the Garden.  Adam has 930 more years to
live on earth with Eve, but they will be strengthened and comforted
by the knowledge of the redeemer who is to arise from their "seed."

Eve already knows everything through her dream.  What Milton is
saying here is that women have a more direct access to some kinds of
knowledge through their intuition.  Eve also rejoices in her "felix
culpa":  "though all by me is lost...  By me the promised seed shall
all restore."

Now the archangels glide toward them like a mist rising from the
river.  This final epic simile of the poem has the usual extra
message--the mist seems to urge the laborers home, just as now the
angels have to make Adam and Eve hurry.  Michael seizes a hand each
of Adam and Eve and ushers them through the gate and down to the
plain below.  He leaves immediately.

Imagine Adam and Eve at this final moment:  they look back up at the
cliff, their eyes full of tears, and see the gate closed against
them.  Above it flames the burning sword, and all around are the
armed angels with forbidding faces.

They turn away from the cliff and look out to a land they have never
seen.  It is frightening, but they seek each other's hands and feel
strengthened by their trust in God.

These last few lines are not in the Biblical source, as you can see.
They express in simple words (look how many are monosyllables) that
frightening sense of intense aloneness you feel when beginning a new
part of your life.  Even though you know that eventually everything
will turn out well, those first few steps are hard to take.  Like
Adam and Eve, we all have to take them.

PARADISE LOST: GLOSSARY

This glossary does not include all the words that Milton uses in
senses different from the senses in which we use them now.  If it
did, it would be a good deal longer than this entire book.  Most of
those words will be explained in footnotes in your edition of
Paradise Lost, or you will find them in a good dictionary.  What you
will find here are names and terms which are used often throughout
the poem and aren't necessarily found in a regular dictionary.

ADAM The first man, placed in Paradise by God.  He asked for a mate,
so God made Eve from his rib.

ANGELS The servants of God.  The word comes from the Greek word
"angellos," which means a messenger.  The angels were created next to
God in the universal hierarchy, above man.

ARCHANGELS The highest order of angels, those entrusted with God's
most important business.  Gabriel, Michael, Uriel, and Raphael are
among the archangels we meet.

ARGUMENT  The subject matter of the poem or the speech (not a verbal dispute).

BEELZEBUB  A fallen angel, second-in-command to Satan.

BELIAL  A fallen angel who speaks in the debate in Pandemonium.

CHAOS The primal stuff which fills all the space between Hell,
Heaven, and the World.  Chaos is both the name of the space-filling
material and the name of the ruler of Chaos.  God takes pieces of
Chaos to make Hell and the World.

CHERUB  A young angel. The plural is cherubim, a Hebrew form.

EDEN The land in Mesopotamia, between the rivers Tigris and
Euphrates, where the Garden of Paradise is situated.

EVE The "mother of mankind," the first woman, made from Adam's rib
and given to him as a mate in the Garden of Paradise.

FALL The name given to Adam and Eve's disobedience.  It is also
called original sin.

FALLEN ANGELS The followers of Satan who were pushed out of Heaven on
the third day of the war and must live in Hell.

FREE WILL The subjective sense that angels and men have that they can
choose all their actions, even though God knows the outcome in
advance.

GABRIEL The archangel who guards Paradise.  He was second-in-command
to Michael in the War in Heaven.

GATE OF HEAVEN The place at the top of the World (the universe) where
there is a stairway going up to Heaven, an opening to go down into
the ten concentric circles which make up the World, and the end of a
road from Hell.

GATE OF HELL Sin and Death stand guard here; after Sin opens the gate
for Satan, it can never be closed again.

GOD He has three aspects:  the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit.
In Paradise Lost, God means the Father.  God is creator of all
things, omnipotent and omniscient, with foreknowledge of all that is
to happen.

HELL Located directly opposite to Heaven, this is where Satan and his
followers are sent after they lose the War in Heaven.

LIMBO A place where souls go who belong neither in Hell nor in
Heaven, it lies on the outside rim of the World.

MAMMON  A fallen angel who loves gold.

MICHAEL  The archangel who escorts Adam and Eve out of Paradise.

MOLOCH  A belligerent fallen angel.

PANDEMONIUM The hall built by Mulciber and Mammon in Hell for the
great debate among the fallen angels.

PARADISE The garden in Eden which God has given Adam and Eve to live
in and from which they are expelled after the Fall.

RAPHAEL The angel who tells Adam the story of the War in Heaven and
the creation.

SERAPHIM  Hebrew plural, meaning angels.

URIEL  The angel who guards the sun.

WORLD In Paradise Lost, the universe.  It consists of ten concentric
circles with earth at the center.


I am, however, of opinion, that no just Heroic Poem ever was or can
be made, from whence one great Moral may be deduced.  That which
reigns in Milton, is the most universal and most useful that can be
imagined:  It is in short this, That Obedience to the Will of God
makes Men happy, and that Disobedience makes them miserable.  This is
visibly the Moral of the principal Fable, which turns upon Adam and
Eve, who continued in Paradise, while they kept the Command that was
given them, and were driven out of it as soon as they transgressed.
This is likewise the Moral of the principal episode, which shews us
how an innumerable Multitude of Angels fell from their State of
Bliss, and were cast into Hell upon their Disobedience.

Joseph Addison and Richard Steele,
The Spectator, 3 May 1712

He was naturally a thinker for himself, confident of his own
abilities, and disdainful of help or hindrance:  he did not refuse
admission to the thought or images of his predecessors, but he did
not seek them....  His great works were performed under
discountenance, and in blindness, but difficulties vanished at his
touch; he was born for whatever is arduous; and his work is not the
greatest of heroick poems, only because it is not the first.

Samuel Johnson, "Milton" in
Lives of the Poets, 1779

Milton's chief ethical interest was freedom.  He wanted to be free of
his own appetites, and the appetites of others, especially tyranny.
Repeatedly he says you can't have the second freedom without the
first; and since the fall that is difficult.

John Broadbent, Paradise Lost:
Introduction, 1972, page 75

The epic poet does not write to convince doubters or to propagate
individual views, but to "assert." It is, of course, just those
matters which an age assumes to be beyond questioning that later ages
question, and epic poetry demands therefore a greater effort of
imagination and a greater willingness to grant the writer's premises
than does drama or lyric poetry.  The poetic greatness of Paradise
Lost is in large measure due to the fact that Milton was able to take
so much for granted.  He was not writing a work of Christian
apologetics on the one hand or a symbolic novel on the other.  He was
writing an epic poem, retelling the best-known story in the world,
and a story whose main meaning and import he did not have to
establish.

Helen Gardner, A Reading of
Paradise Lost, 1965, page 15

We are never, for one moment, away from Milton in Paradise Lost.  It
is overwhelmingly the product of his mind and his genius.  But the
vocation to "assert eternal providence" is faithfully pursued.  His
darkened eyes search out "thrones, dominations, princedoms, virtues,
powers." And it is from the Archangel that Adam receives the
reassurance that though He is now invisible, God's presence follows
his people through the world.  The vision must be asserted because it
will never, in the realm of nature, be automatically felt.

A. N. Wilson,
The Life of John Milton, 1983, page 213

                               THE END